NF-kappaB, but not p38 MAP kinase, is required for TNF-alpha-induced expression of cell adhesion molecules in endothelial cells

In response to inflammation stimuli, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) induces expression of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) in endothelial cells (ECs). Studies have suggested that the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and the p38 MAP kinase (p38) signaling pathways play central roles in this process, but conflicting results have been reported. The objective of this study is to determine the relative contributions of the two pathways to the effect of TNF-alpha. Our initial data indicated that blockade of p38 activity by chemical inhibitor SB203580 (SB) at 10 microM moderately inhibited TNF-alpha-induced expression of three types of CAMs; ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-selectin, indicating that p38 may be involved in the process. However, subsequent analysis revealed that neither 1 microM SB that could completely inhibit p38 nor specific knockdown of p38alpha and p38beta with small interference RNA (siRNA) had an apparent effect, indicating that p38 activity is not essential for TNF-alpha-induced CAMs. The most definitive evidence to support this conclusion was from the experiments using cells differentiated from p38alpha knockout embryonic stem cells. We could show that deletion of p38alpha gene did not affect TNF-alpha-induced ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression when compared with wild-type cells. We further demonstrated that inhibition of NF-kappaB completely blocked TNF-alpha-induced expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-selectin. Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate that NF-kappaB, but not p38, is critical for TNF-alpha-induced CAM expression. The inhibition of SB at 10 microM on TNF-alpha-induced ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-selectin is likely due to the nonspecific effect of SB.     

Angiogenesis in collagen I requires alpha2beta1 ligation of a GFP*GER sequence and possibly p38 MAPK activation and focal adhesion disassembly

Angiogenesis depends on proper collagen biosynthesis and cross-linking, and type I collagen is an ideal angiogenic scaffold, although its mechanism is unknown. We examined angiogenesis using an assay wherein confluent monolayers of human umbilical vein endothelial cells were overlain with collagen in a serum-free defined medium. Small spaces formed in the cell layer by 2 h, and cells formed net-like arrays by 6-8 h and capillary-like lumens by 24 h. Blocking of alpha2beta1, but not alpha1 or alpha(v)beta3 integrin function halted morphogenesis. We found that a triple-helical, homotrimeric peptide mimetic of a putative alpha2beta1 binding site: alpha1(I)496-507 GARGERGFP*GER (where single-letter amino acid nomenclature is used, P* = hydroxyproline) inhibited tube formation, whereas a peptide carrying another putative site: alpha1(I)127-138 GLP*GERGRP*GAP* or control peptides did not. A chemical inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), SB202190, blocked tube formation, and p38 MAPK activity was increased in collagen-treated cultures, whereas targeting MAPK kinase (MEK), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), or phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) had little effect. Collagen-treated cells had fewer focal adhesions and 3- to 5-fold less activated FAK. Thus capillary morphogenesis requires endothelial alpha2beta1 integrin engagement of a single type I collagen integrin-binding site, possibly signaling via p38 MAPK and focal adhesion disassembly/FAK inactivation.     

The activity of soluble VCAM-1 in angiogenesis stimulated by IL-4 and IL-13

IL-13 is a multifunctional lymphokine sharing a number of biological properties with IL-4. We previously observed that IL-4 shows angiogenic activities in vitro as well as in vivo. In this study we examined the effect of IL-13 on angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo and also the underlying mechanisms. Human IL-13 significantly stimulated the formation of tube-like structures in collagen gels by human microvascular endothelial cells and bovine aortic endothelial cells by about 3-fold over the controls in the absence of the cytokines. Administration of murine IL-13 led to neovascularization when implanted in the rat cornea. Coadministration of neutralizing mAb to the IL-4R inhibited both tubular morphogenesis in vitro and activation of STAT6 induced by IL-4 or IL-13. Both IL-4 and IL-13 markedly increased mRNA levels of VCAM-1 in vascular endothelial cells, and the production of the soluble form of VCAM-1 was also stimulated in response to IL-4 or IL-13. Administration of anti-VCAM-1 Ab in vitro blocked tubular morphogenesis induced by IL-4 and IL-13. Angiogenesis induced in vivo in rat cornea by IL-4 and IL-13 was also inhibited by Ab against the rat alpha4 integrin subunit. These findings suggest that angiogenesis dependent on IL-4 and IL-13 is mainly mediated through a soluble VCAM-1/alpha4 integrin pathway.     

p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase is activated and linked to TNF-alpha signaling in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD)--Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis--are relapsing chronic inflammatory disorders which involve genetic, immunological, and environmental factors. The regulation of TNF-alpha, a key mediator in the inflammatory process in IBD, is interconnected with mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. The aim of this study was to characterize the activity and expression of the four p38 subtypes (p38alpha-delta), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs), and the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK)1/2 in the inflamed intestinal mucosa. Western blot analysis revealed that p38alpha, JNKs, and ERK1/2 were significantly activated in IBD, with p38alpha showing the most pronounced increase in kinase activity. Protein expression of p38 and JNK was only moderately altered in IBD patients compared with normal controls, whereas ERK1/2 protein was significantly down-regulated. Immunohistochemical analysis of inflamed mucosal biopsies localized the main expression of p38alpha to lamina propria macrophages and neutrophils. ELISA screening of the supernatants of Crohn's disease mucosal biopsy cultures showed that incubation with the p38 inhibitor SB 203580 significantly reduced secretion of TNF-alpha. In vivo inhibition of TNF-alpha by a single infusion of anti-TNF-alpha Ab (infliximab) resulted in a highly significant transient increase of p38alpha activity during the first 48 h after infusion. A significant infliximab-dependent p38alpha activation was also observed in THP-1 myelomonocytic cells. In human monocytes, infliximab enhanced TNF-alpha gene expression, which could be inhibited by SB 203580. In conclusion, p38alpha signaling is involved in the pathophysiology of IBD.     

A critical role for p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in the maturation of human blood-derived dendritic cells induced by lipopolysaccharide, TNF-alpha, and contact sensitizers

We investigated the involvement of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the maturation of CD83(-) dendritic cells (DC) derived from human blood monocytes. Maturating agents such as LPS and TNF-alpha induced the phosphorylation of members of the three families of MAPK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase l/2, p46/54 c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and p38 MAPK). SB203580, an inhibitor of the p38 MAPK, but not the extracellular signal-regulated kinase l/2 pathway blocker PD98059, inhibited the up-regulation of CD1a, CD40, CD80, CD86, HLA-DR, and the DC maturation marker CD83 induced by LPS and TNF-alpha. In addition, SB203580 inhibited the enhancement of the allostimulatory capacity and partially prevented the down-regulation of FITC-dextran uptake induced by LPS and TNF-alpha. Likewise, SB203580 partially prevented the up-regulation of IL-1alpha, IL-1beta, IL-lRa, and TNF-alpha mRNA upon stimulation with LPS and TNF-alpha, as well as the release of bioactive TNF-alpha induced by LPS. DC maturation induced by the contact sensitizers 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene and NiSO(4), as seen by the up-regulation of CD80, CD86, and CD83, was also coupled to the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, and was inhibited by SB203580. The irritants SDS and benzalkonium chloride that do not induce DC maturation did not trigger p38 MAPK phosphorylation. Together, these data indicate that phosphorylation of p38 MAPK is critical for the maturation of immature DC. These results also suggest that p38 MAPK phosphorylation in DC may become useful for the identification of potential skin contact sensitizers.     

p38 alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase is activated by CD28-mediated signaling and is required for IL-4 production by human CD4+CD45RO+ T cells and Th2 effector cells.

T cell proliferation and cytokine production usually require stimulation via both the TCR/CD3 complex and the CD28 costimulatory receptor. Using purified human CD4+ peripheral blood T cells, we show that CD28 stimulation alone activates p38 alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 alpha). Cell proliferation induced by CD28 stimulation alone, a response attributed to CD4+CD45RO+ memory T cells, was blocked by the highly specific p38 inhibitors SB 203580 (IC50 = 10-80 nM) and RWJ 67657 (IC50 = 0.5-4 nM). In contrast, proliferation induced by anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28 mAbs was not blocked. Inhibitors of p38 also blocked CD4+ T cell production of IL-4 (SB 203580 IC50 = 20-100 nM), but not IL-2, in response to CD3 and CD28 stimulation. IL-5, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma production were also inhibited, but to a lesser degree than IL-4. IL-4 production was attributed to CD4+CD45RO+ T cells, and its induction was suppressed by p38 inhibitors at the mRNA level. In polarized Th1 and Th2 cell lines, SB 203580 strongly inhibited IL-4 production by Th2 cells (IC50 = 10-80 nM), but only partially inhibited IFN-gamma and IL-2 production by Th1 cells (<50% inhibition at 1 microM). In both Th1 and Th2 cells, CD28 signaling activated p38 alpha and was required for cytokine production. These results show that p38 alpha plays an important role in some, but not all, CD28-dependent cellular responses. Its preferential involvement in IL-4 production by CD4+CD45RO+ T cells and Th2 effector cells suggests that p38 alpha may be important in the generation of Th2-type responses in humans.     

Nicotine stimulates adhesion molecular expression via calcium influx and mitogen-activated protein kinases in human endothelial cells

To evaluate the effect of nicotine on endothelium dysfunction and development of vascular diseases, we investigated the influence on adhesion molecular expression mediated by nicotine and the mechanism of this effect in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The result showed that nicotine could induce surface/soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM-1) and endothelial selectin (E-selectin) expression in a time-response decline manner and the peak appeared at 15 min. This action could be mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 (MAPK/ERK1/2) and MAPK/p38 because their activation could be distinctly blocked by MAPK inhibitors, PD098059 or SB203580. Mecamylamine (non-selective nicotinic receptor inhibitor), alpha-bungarotoxin (alpha7 nicotinic receptor inhibitor) could block Ca2+ accumulation, and then, prevented the phosphorylation on ERK1/2 and p38. They also inhibited the surface/soluble VCAM-1, E-selectin production of HUVECs modulated by nicotine. Therefore, we concluded that: (i) nicotine obviously up-regulates VCAM-1 and E-selectin expression at 15 min in HUVECs, (ii) nicotine activates HUVECs triggered by the ERK1/2 and p38 phosphorylation with an involvement of intracellular calcium mobilization chiefly mediated by alpha7 nicotinic receptor, (iii) intracellular Ca2+ activates a sequential pathway from alpha7 nicotinic receptor to the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, p38. These elucidate that nicotine activates HUVECs through fast signal transduction pathway and arguments their capacity of adhesion molecular production. Further more nicotine may contribute its influence to the progression of vascular disease such as atherosclerotic lesion.     

Activation of p90RSK and cAMP response element binding protein in stimulated neutrophils: novel effects of the pyridinyl imidazole SB 203580 on activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase cascade.

Neutrophils stimulated with the chemoattractant FMLP or the phorbol ester PMA are known to exhibit activation of a 90-kDa renaturable protein kinase. Activation of this kinase was maximal at approximately 1-3 min after cell stimulation and the time course for activation was similar to that of the extracellular-regulated kinases (ERKs) and p38-mitogen activated protein kinase (p38MAPK). Compounds that block activation of ERK-1/2 (PD 98059) or that inhibit the activity of p38MAPK (SB 203580) blocked activation of this 90-kDa kinase. SB 203580 is a highly selective inhibitor of p38MAPK in vitro and is under intense study as a lead compound for developing novel anti-inflammatory agents. However, we demonstrate that SB 203580 at concentrations >/=10 microM can also inhibit activation of ERK-1/2 in neutrophils. An Ab to the protein kinase p90RSK2 (also referred to as MAPKAP-K1b, or p90rsk) immunoprecipitated the active 90-kDa kinase from lysates of stimulated neutrophils. No activity was observed for this enzyme in immunoprecipitates obtained from unstimulated cells, and the amounts of activity were markedly reduced if the cells were treated with PD 98059 or SB 203580 before stimulation. Neutrophils stimulated with FMLP exhibited phosphorylation of the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), and this reaction was inhibited by SB 203580 and PD 98059. These data establish that the renaturable 90-kDa protein kinase is p90RSK2 and that CREB may be a substrate for this enzyme in these cells. Novel effects of compound SB 203580 on stimulated neutrophils are also described.     

Expression of TNF-alpha by herpes simplex virus-infected macrophages is regulated by a dual mechanism: transcriptional regulation by NF-kappa B and activating transcription factor 2/Jun and translational regulation through the AU-rich region of the 3' untranslated region

When HLA-DR, -DQ, and -DP were cross-linked by solid-phase mAbs, monocytes produced monokines and only anti-DR markedly activated mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase extracellular signal-related kinase, whereas anti-DR, anti-DQ, and anti-DP all activated MAP kinase p38. Activation of extracellular signal-related kinase was not inhibited by neutralizing Ab to TNF-alpha. Anti-DR and DR-restricted T cells stimulated monocytes to produce relatively higher levels of proinflammatory monokines, such as IL-1beta, whereas anti-DQ/DP and DQ-/DP-restricted T cells stimulated higher levels of anti-inflammatory monokine IL-10. IL-10 production was abrogated by the p38 inhibitor SB203580, but rather enhanced by the MAP/extracellular signal-related kinase kinase-I-specific inhibitor PD98059, whereas IL-1beta was only partially abrogated by SB203580 and PD98059. Furthermore, DR-restricted T cells established from PBMC, which are reactive with mite Ags, purified protein derivative, and random 19-mer peptides, exhibited a higher IFN-gamma:IL-4 ratio than did DQ- or DP-restricted T cells. These results indicate that HLA-DR, -DQ, and -DP molecules transmit distinct signals to monocytes via MAP kinases and lead to distinct monokine activation patterns, which may affect T cell responses in vivo. Thus, the need for generation of a multigene family of class II MHC seems apparent.     

Mitogen-activated protein kinases and NF-kappa B are involved in TNF-alpha responses to group B streptococci

TNF-alpha is a mediator of lethality in experimental infections by group B streptococcus (GBS), an important human pathogen. Little is known of signal transduction pathways involved in GBS-induced TNF-alpha production. Here we investigate the role of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and NF-kappa B in TNF-alpha production by human monocytes stimulated with GBS or LPS, used as a positive control. Western blot analysis of cell lysates indicates that extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK 1/2), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase MAPKs, as well as I kappa B alpha, became phosphorylated, and hence activated, in both LPS- and GBS-stimulated monocytes. The kinetics of these phosphorylation events, as well as those of TNF-alpha production, were delayed by 30-60 min in GBS-stimulated, relative to LPS-stimulated, monocytes. Selective inhibitors of ERK 1/2 (PD98059 or U0126), p38 (SB203580), or NF-kappa B (caffeic acid phenetyl ester (CAPE)) could all significantly reduce TNF-alpha production, although none of the inhibitors used alone was able to completely prevent TNF-alpha release. However, this was completely blocked by combinations of the inhibitors, including PD98059-SB203580, PD98059-CAPE, or SB203580-CAPE combinations, in both LPS- and GBS-stimulated monocytes. In conclusion, our data indicate that the simultaneous activation of multiple pathways, including NF-kappa B, ERK 1/2, and p38 MAPKs, is required to induce maximal TNF-alpha production. Accordingly, in septic shock caused by either GBS or Gram-negative bacteria, complete inhibition of TNF-alpha release may require treatment with drugs or drug combinations capable of inhibiting multiple activation pathways.     

p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase regulation of endothelial cell migration depends on urokinase plasminogen activator expression

The migration of endothelial cells in response to various stimulating factors plays an essential role in angiogenesis. The p38 MAPK pathway has been implicated to play an important role in endothelial cell migration because inhibiting p38 MAPK activity down-regulates vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-stimulated migration. Currently, the signaling components in the p38 MAPK activation pathway and especially the mechanisms responsible for p38 MAPK-regulated endothelial cell migration are not well understood. In the present study, we found that p38 MAPK activity is required for endothelial cell migration stimulated by both VEGF and nongrowth factor stimulants, sphingosine 1-phosphate and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule. By using dominant negative forms of signaling components in the p38 MAPK pathway, we identified that a regulatory pathway consisting of MKK3-p38alpha/gamma-MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 participated in VEGF-stimulated migration. In further studies, we showed that a minimum of a 10-h treatment with SB203580 (specific p38 MAPK inhibitor) was needed to block VEGF-stimulated migration, suggesting an indirect role of p38 MAPK in this cellular event. Most interestingly, the occurrence of SB203580-induced migratory inhibition coincided with a reduction of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) expression. Furthermore, agents disrupting uPA and uPA receptor interaction abrogated VEGF-stimulated cell migration. These results suggest a possible association between cell migration and uPA expression. Indeed, VEGF-stimulated migration was not compromised by SB203580 in endothelial cells expressing the uPA transgene; however, VEGF-stimulated migration was inhibited by agents disrupting uPA-uPA receptor interaction. These results thus suggest that the p38 MAPK pathway participates in endothelial cell migration by regulating uPA expression.     

Paxillin binding to the alpha 4 integrin subunit stimulates LFA-1 (integrin alpha L beta 2)-dependent T cell migration by augmenting the activation of focal adhesion kinase/proline-rich tyrosine kinase-2

Engagement of very late Ag-4 (integrin alpha(4)beta(1)) by ligands such as VCAM-1 markedly stimulates leukocyte migration mediated by LFA-1 (integrin alpha(L)beta(2)). This form of integrin trans-regulation in T cells requires the binding of paxillin to the alpha(4) integrin cytoplasmic domain. This conclusion is based on the abolition of trans-regulation in Jurkat T cells by an alpha(4) mutation (alpha(4)(Y991A)) that disrupts paxillin binding. Furthermore, cellular expression of an alpha(4)-binding fragment of paxillin that blocks the alpha(4)-paxillin interaction, selectively blocked VCAM-1 stimulation of alpha(L)beta(2)-dependent cell migration. The alpha(4)-paxillin association mediates trans-regulation by enhancing the activation of tyrosine kinases, focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and/or proline-rich tyrosine kinase-2 (Pyk2), based on two lines of evidence. First, disruption of the paxillin-binding site in the alpha(4) tail resulted in much less alpha(4)beta(1)-mediated phosphorylation of Pyk2 and FAK. Second, transfection with cDNAs encoding C-terminal fragments of Pyk2 and FAK, which block the function of the intact kinases, blocked alpha(4)beta(1) stimulation of alpha(L)beta(2)-dependent migration. These results define a proximal protein-protein interaction of an integrin cytoplasmic domain required for trans-regulation between integrins, and establish that augmented activation of Pyk2 and/or FAK is an immediate signaling event required for the trans-regulation of integrin alpha(L)beta(2) by alpha(4)beta(1).     

Resistin induces monocyte-endothelial cell adhesion by increasing ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression in endothelial cells via p38MAPK-dependent pathway

Resistin, firstly reported as an adipocyte-specific hormone, is suggested to be an important link between obesity and diabetes. Recent studies have suggested an association between resistin and atherogenic processes. The adhesion of circulating monocytes to endothelial cells is a critical step in the early stages of atherosclerosis. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of resistin on the adhesion of THP-1 monocytes to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and the underlying mechanism. Our results showed that resistin caused a significant increase in monocyte adhesion. In exploring the underlying mechanisms of resistin action, we found that resistin-induced monocyte adhesion was blocked by inhibition of p38MAPK activation using SB203580 and SB202190. Furthermore, resistin increased the expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) by HUVECs and these effects were also p38MAPK-dependent. Resistin-induced monocyte adhesion was also blocked by monoclonal antibodies against ICAM-1 and VCAM-1. Taken together, these results show that resistin increases both the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 by endothelial cells and monocyte adhesion to HUVECs via p38MAPK-dependent pathways.     

The role of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in IL-6 and IL-8 production from the TNF-alpha- or IL-1beta-stimulated rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts

We examined the role of p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase in the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha)- or interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta)-induced production of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) in fresh rheumatoid synovial fibroblast (RSF) cultures concomitantly with the induction of p38 MAP kinase activity. Pretreatment of RSF with a specific p38 MAP kinase inhibitor, SB203580, blocked the induction of IL-6 and IL-8 without affecting nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) or IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA levels. These findings suggest that p38 MAP kinase inhibitor may have synergistic, rather than additive, effect for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.     

Hypoxia modulates lipopolysaccharide induced TNF-alpha expression in murine macrophages

The pro-inflammatory activity of Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) together with tissue hypoxia determine the clinical outcome in sepsis and septic shock. p38 MAPKinase is the primary intracellular signaling pathway that regulates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced TNF-alpha biosynthesis, however, the effect of hypoxia on LPS mediated activation of p38 is not known. Here we report that SB203580, a specific p38 MAPK inhibitor, which completely abolished LPS-induced TNF-alpha expression by the mouse macrophage cell RAW264.7 in normoxic conditions, lost the inhibitory effect in hypoxic conditions. Hypoxia did not modulate expression of p38 MAPK, but increased that of p-MK2, a downstream target of p38 MAPK. In LPS induced endotoxemia mice model SB203580 had no inhibitory effect on the serum levels of TNF-alpha. Furthermore, hypoxia inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) was detected in vivo after LPS administration but its expression was not affected by SB203580. Our data indicate that LPS induced p38 MAPK activation was enhanced by hypoxia and consequently increased TNF-alpha secretion. Furthermore, the induction of HIF-1alpha in mice with endotoxemia suggested a synergistic effect on p38 mediated TNF-alpha expression. These findings provide new insights on the pathophysiological effects of hypoxia in sepsis and septic shock.     

Feedback control of the protein kinase TAK1 by SAPK2a/p38alpha

TAB1, a subunit of the kinase TAK1, was phosphorylated by SAPK2a/p38alpha at Ser423, Thr431 and Ser438 in vitro. TAB1 became phosphorylated at all three sites when cells were exposed to cellular stresses, or stimulated with tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1 (IL-1) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The phosphorylation of Ser423 and Thr431 was prevented if cells were pre-incubated with SB 203580, while the phosphorylation of Ser438 was partially inhibited by PD 184352. Ser423 is the first residue phosphorylated by SAPK2a/p38alpha that is not followed by proline. The activation of TAK1 was enhanced by SB 203580 in LPS-stimulated macrophages, and by proinflammatory cytokines or osmotic shock in epithelial KB cells or embryonic fibroblasts. The activation of TAK1 by TNF-alpha, IL-1 or osmotic shock was also enhanced in embryonic fibroblasts from SAPK2a/p38alpha-deficient mice, while incubation of these cells with SB 203580 had no effect. Our results suggest that TAB1 participates in a SAPK2a/p38alpha-mediated feedback control of TAK1, which not only limits the activation of SAPK2a/p38alpha but synchronizes its activity with other signalling pathways that lie downstream of TAK1 (JNK and IKK).