Impact of saltwater spray andsand deposition on the coastal annualTriplasis purpurea (Poaceae)

Pioneer coastal plants occur in areas where sand movement and airborne salt are common. The objectives of this study were to (1) quantify natural levels of salt and sand deposition in relation to distance from the shoreline of Staten Island, New York, and (2) experimentally determine the impact of saltwater sprays and partial sand burial on growth and reproduction of the native dunegrass Triplasis purpurea. This summer annual matures most seeds in cleistogamous spikelets on leaf sheath-enclosed axillary panicles along culm internodes. Levels of salt deposition onto T. purpurea shoots over 6 d were determined with a conductivity meter to be 175 μg/cm² at 39 m from shore in 1997, but declined rapidly with increasing distances to 90 m. Sand deposition over 1 mo in the summer averaged 30 mm at 72–90 m from shore. In a greenhouse factorial experiment, seedlings were unburied, buried to 50% height, or buried to 75% height and simultaneously subjected to no sprays, two sprays/wk, or six sprays/wk of seawater over the summer. Sand deposition increased plant size and seed production, but seawater sprays were mostly detrimental, reducing plant size, seed production, and seed mass. However, T. purpurea tolerated moderate levels of salt deposition. The stimulation of growth and reproduction in partially buried plants is adaptive on the sandy soils. Prolific seed production and tolerance to moderate levels of airborne salt allow this annual to maintain high population densities close to shore.     

Local genetic population structure in an endangered plant species, Silene tatarica (Caryophyllaceae)

Genetic substructuring in plant populations may evolve as a consequence of sampling events that occur when the population is founded or regenerated, or if gene dispersal by pollen and seeds is restricted within a population. Silene tatarica is an endangered, perennial plant species growing along periodically disturbed riverbanks in northern Finland. We investigated the mechanism behind the microspatial genetic structure of S. tatarica in four subpopulations using amplified fragment length polymorphism markers. Spatial autocorrelation revealed clear spatial genetic structure in each subpopulation, even though the pattern diminished in older subpopulations. Parentage analysis in an isolated island subpopulation indicated a very low level of selfing and avoidance of breeding between close relatives. The mean estimated pollen dispersal distance (24.10 m; SD = 10.5) was significantly longer and the mean seed dispersal distance (9.07 m; SD = 9.23) was considerably shorter than the mean distance between the individuals (19.20 m; SD = 13.80). The estimated indirect and direct estimates of neighbourhood sizes in this subpopulation were very similar, 32.1 and 37.6, respectively. Our results suggested that the local spatial genetic structure in S. tatarica was attributed merely to the isolation-by-distance process rather than founder effect, and despite free pollen movement across population, restricted seed dispersal maintains local genetic structure in this species.     

Genetic structure in a population of a tropical tree Ocotea tenera (Lauraceae): influence of avian seed dispersal

We studied the influence of avian seed dispersal on the structuring of genetic diversity in a population of a tropical tree, Ocotea tenera (Lauraceae). The seeds of O. tenera are principally dispersed by four, relatively specialized, fruit-eating bird species (emerald toucanets, keel-billed toucans, resplendent quetzals, and three-wattled bellbirds). We found high genetic diversity within the overall population and significant, nonrandom structuring of that diversity among subpopulations. Subpopulations contained members of several sibling groups, and most saplings within subpopulations were shown not to be the progeny of adult trees within the same subpopulation. Our data indicate that O. tenera subpopulations are founded with several seeds from few maternal families, and that this mode of establishment is an important determinant of population genetic architecture.     

Patterns of Differentiation in Wiregrass (Aristida beyrichiana): Implications for Restoration Efforts

Aristida beyrichiana (wiregrass) is increasingly being planted in restoration projects across the southeastern coastal plain, with little focus on genetic differences among populations across the region. Local and regional population differentiation for establishment and growth traits were examined in common garden and reciprocal transplant experiments. Seeds from up to 20 plants from each of seven populations were collected in northern and central Florida sites that encompassed gradients of soils, hydrology, and temperature. Reciprocal seed transplants using three of the common garden populations were conducted in two consecutive years. In the common garden, significant population differences were seen in seed weight, seedling emergence and survival, tiller height, number of tillers, the relationship between tiller number and tiller height, and flowering. Variation among maternal families was seen in tiller number and in the relationship between tiller number and tiller height. The reciprocal transplant study did not detect either local adaptation to sites of origin or consistent superiority of one source population or planting site in seedling establishment. These results suggest that the probability of seedling establishment is primarily dependent on environmental conditions rather than genetic differences. Genetic variation for traits related to fitness (e.g., tiller number) may be retained within populations because phenotypically plastic growth responses of seedlings to environmental variation buffer genetic variation against the action of selection. But despite the lack of evidence for genetic influences on initial establishment in wiregrass, our common garden study suggests genetic differences among populations. This result, when combined with previous results indicating local adaptation in later life stages of wiregrass, suggests that restoration efforts involving this species should use local seed sources from sites with similar soil and hydrological conditions.     

Population genetic structure of native versus naturalized sympatric shrub willows (Salix; Salicaceae)

Vegetative propagation of an introduced species can contribute significantly to its ability to spread and become naturalized, potentially in competition with native species. This study focused on the naturalization of a willow shrub, Salix purpurea, which was introduced to the United States from Europe and is commonly sympatric with the native shrub willow, S. eriocephala. Both species are capable of vegetative and sexual reproduction, but little is known about their relative frequency, nor the impact of clonal propagation on population-level genetic diversity. We analyzed genotypes at several microsatellite loci in 993 individuals belonging to 30 subpopulations of S. eriocephala and 28 subpopulations of S. purpurea in areas of sympatry across three watersheds to compare their genetic diversity and genetic structure. Our results revealed six subpopulations of S. purpurea containing plants with identical multilocus genotypes, while clonal individuals were rare among S. eriocephala populations. These species are dioecious with relatively high levels of heterozygosity, but S. eriocephala had much higher allelic diversity and genotypic diversity than did S. purpurea. These results strongly suggest that vegetative propagation has contributed to the naturalization of S. purpurea and has resulted in higher levels of genetic differentiation among S. purpurea populations than among native S. eriocephala populations.     

THE EFFECTS OF SPRAY TREATMENTS ON INFESTATION OF THE OAT CROP BY THE FRIT FLY (OSCINELLA FRIT L.)

Criteria are given for the timing and assessment of the effect of sprays on experimental plots, based on biological observations at Silwood Park from 1950 to 1955 and on previous work.
A preliminary experiment on small plots in 1952 indicated that 'blanket spraying' with DDT and parathion throughout the life of the crop gave protection against both tiller and grain attack. A more detailed replicated plot trial in 1953 showed that for oats planted on 22 April two carefully timed tiller sprays with parathion reduced tiller infestation from 31 to 3%. Six panicle sprays at weekly intervals reduced a heavy grain attack of 60% to 13%. Dieldrin was also effective but significantly less so than parathion. Much of the damage to the crop was caused by weed growth following initial loss of the primary oat shoots.
In 1954 and 1955 two and three parathion sprays were applied to 2-acre fields in order to study recolonization. Despite almost complete control of the tiller generation, a normal evenly distributed infestation of the panicles was found.
It is concluded that good control of the tiller generation may best be achieved by a spray programme based on knowledge of the phenology of the fly combined with that of the crop. The first general emergence in early May is likely to be critical.
Reinvasion of a sprayed crop may take place within 4–5 days and panicle infestation may not be causally related to tiller infestation in the same field.     

Effects of chemical treatments for mildew control at different times on the growth and yield of spring barley

Experiments in 1973 and 1974 tested the effects of ethirimol seed treatment and the timing of single sprays of ethirimol or tridemorph, on mildew control and the growth and yield of spring barley. These treatments were compared with selected combinations of two treatments designed to give longer protection. In 1973, combinations of seed treatment and spray, or two sprays, did not yield better than the best component treatment applied alone or the most effective single spray of tridemorph applied on 1 June. In 1974, mildew developed usually early and yields were increased by applying ethirimol to the seed plus a tridemorph spray or two tridemorph sprays. However, barley sprayed once with tridemorph on 20 May, the expected best date, yielded more than barley receiving a seed treatment of ethirimol plus a tridemorph spray applied on either 3 or 12 June. Sprays of captafol and tridemorph, applied as separate treatments, successively to the same plots on three occasions, gave the best yields in both years. Treatments most affected ear number but they did have some effect on all components of yield. In 1974 there was a significant relationship between ear number and the variance of the number of grains per ear.     

Growth trajectories and size-dependent reproduction in the highly invasive grass <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microstegium vimineum</Emphasis>

To better understand the ecological and evolutionary processes that underlie the ability of invasive plants to colonize and spread in a region, basic data on quantitative genetic variation in growth and reproduction of plants from contrasting microsites are desirable. The annual grass Microstegium vimineum is an invasive colonizer of the herbaceous layer in forests of the eastern United States. This greenhouse study utilized seeds collected from maternal plants in a shady forest or sunny edge microsite in central New Jersey, USA, to examine variation in growth trajectories and size-dependent reproduction. Questions addressed were (1) do growth trajectories vary significantly among families and between microsites? and (2) does reproductive mass scale with vegetative size? The trajectory for shoot dry mass over time was significantly related to microsite, due apparently to greater growth over the final 8 weeks of plants from the interior compared to those from the edge. It is suggested that a growth increase late in the season enables plants to maximize reproduction when light conditions improve following canopy leaf senescence. Number of tillers exhibited significant variation among families within microsites, but growth trajectories did not. Positive phenotypic and genetic correlations were detected between reproductive and vegetative mass per tiller; thus selection may favor large tillers to increase seed output, a critical life history trait for an invasive weed.     

Population differentiation in the tiller architecture of Microstegium vimineum (Poaceae) in relation to habitat

Grass tillers grow by addition of modular units known as phytomers. Differences in phytomer organ size produce subindividual variation with potential adaptive value. Here, patterns in organ mass along tillers in the invasive annual Microstegium vimineum are related to habitat and tiller architecture. In an earlier study, seed families were collected from two populations: one from a sunny, woodland edge and the other from a shady understory in New Jersey, USA. Plants from these seeds were grown in a greenhouse. Phytomers along primary tillers were divided into culms, leaves, and cleistogamous or chasmogamous spikelets and seeds, dried and weighed. These data were used to examine the quantitative genetics of subindividual variation among families and populations, and the relationship of tiller fitness (based on total seed mass) to the mean or subindividual variance of phytomer traits. Phytomer position along a tiller was the major determinant of organ mass. Leaf mass increased from basal to upper nodes; cleistogamous reproductive mass decreased from upper to lower nodes. Phytomer organs were heaviest in the population from the sunny habitat. Family explained < 18% of variation in organ mass. Tiller fitness was positively correlated with mean culm, and leaf mass, but negatively correlated with coefficients of variation. Field‐collected tillers showed evidence of selection for increased leaf mass. Subindividual variation in M. vimineum is mostly due to phytomer position along a tiller and the prevailing light environment. Differentiation between sunny and shady populations suggests selection favors heavier phytomer leaves and culms, especially in the shady understory where this species is most invasive.     

Genetic structure and gene flow in a metapopulation of an endangered plant species,Silene tatarica

We investigated the distribution of genetic variation within and between seven subpopulations in a riparian population of Silene tatarica in northern Finland by using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. A Bayesian approach-based clustering program indicated that the marker data contained not only one panmictic population, but consisted of seven clusters, and that each original sample site seems to consist of a distinct subpopulation. A coalescent-based simulation approach shows recurrent gene flow between subpopulations. Relative high FST values indicated a clear subpopulation differentiation. However, amova analysis and UPGMA-dendrogram did not suggest any hierarchical regional structuring among the subpopulations. There was no correlation between geographical and genetic distances among the subpopulations, nor any correlation between the subpopulation census size and amount of genetic variation. Estimates of gene flow suggested a low level of gene flow between the subpopulations, and the assignment tests proposed a few long-distance bidirectional dispersal events between the subpopulations. No apparent difference was found in within-subpopulation genetic diversity among upper, middle and lower regions along the river. Relative high amounts of linkage disequilibrium at subpopulation level indicated recent population bottlenecks or admixture, and at metapopulation levels a high subpopulation turnover rate. The overall pattern of genetic variation within and between subpopulations also suggested a 'classical' metapopulation structure of the species suggested by the ecological surveys.     

用分子标记揭示植物随机大居群中亚居群的遗传结构——茅栗自然居群空间遗传结构的SSR分析

采用微卫星标记对茅栗(Castanea sequinii)随机大居群以及其中各亚居群的遗传结构进行了空间自相关分析,以探讨植物自然居群内遗传变异的分布特征及其形成机制。通过9对微卫星引物所产生的119个多态位点,测定了大别山区域内茅栗居群以及各亚居群的空间自相关系数Moran's I值。结果表明:大别山分布的野生茅栗为一个缺乏空间结构的随机大居群,茅栗亚居群之间频繁的花粉流削弱了地理隔离导致的遗传漂变或分化作用在维系居群随机遗传结构中具有的重要作用。但是,在接近亚居群大小的地域范围内(0.228 km)具有一定的空间结构,即小地域尺度中的亚居群存在着空间遗传结构。取样的3个亚居群在小格局范围内都存在一定的空间结构,遗传变异基本上呈非随机分布,在短距离内(61 m)3个亚居群一致表现出不同程度的显著正相关,而随着距离的增加,Moran's I值虽然在不同亚居群间存在一定差异变化,但是总体而言趋向预期值,即不存在空间结构,说明其遗传变异在亚居群内只是在短距离内形成一定的空间结构。研究认为有限的种子散播以及微生境选择等因素可能是产生这种小格局的遗传结构的主要原因。上述研究结果有助于进一步了解植物随机大居群的进化历史和生态过程,同时也为栗属植物中国特有种的保育策略提供了科学依据。     

种子重量与海拔的相关性分析

种子重量与海拔的关系是植物生态学中重要而尚存争议的问题。本文对中国123科853种2879份野生植物种子的重量在海拔上的变化特点以及二者之间的相互关系进行了深入研究,结果显示：种子重量总体上与海拔呈负相关,种子重量级别多样性和生活型多样性随海拔上升呈阶梯状下降。但7级种子中,只有100级种子的重量与海拔呈负相关;7种生活型中,只有灌木和匍匐草本的种子重量与海拔呈负相关;在种水平上,只有82%的物种种子重量与海拔存在相关性。本研究揭示了我国种子重量与海拔之间的复杂关系,以及遗传和环境对种子重量的影响,对植物育种、森林管理以及入侵植物的防治具有一定指导意义。     

PLANTING DENSITY INFLUENCES THE EXPRESSION OF GENETIC VARIATION IN SEED MASS IN WILD RADISH (RAPHANUS SATIVUS L.: BRASSICACEAE)

To determine the effects of density, genotype, and their interaction on individual seed mass in Raphanus sativus L., we replicated maternal and paternal families of seed across two planting densities in an experimental garden. Seeds were produced by a nested breeding design performed in the greenhouse. Among garden-raised plants, density had a strong negative effect on the mass of seeds produced. At low density, the identity of the greenhouse-grown maternal plants had a strong effect on F₂ seed mass, while in high-density plots, there were no significant parental effects on mean seed mass. Significant parental genotype density interactions contributed to variation in F₂ seed mass. Norms of reaction for each of the 15 paternal sibships illustrate paternal family density interactions. Three sibships exhibited significant declines in mean seed mass with increasing density; 12 sibships showed no change. Maternal family density interaction effects on seed mass were also detected; among maternal sibships, mean seed mass at low density was negatively correlated with mean seed mass at high density. These results demonstrate: a) planting density has a strong effect on mean individual seed mass produced by adults; b) density influences the magnitude of maternal effects on progeny phenotype; and c) genotype density interactions influence seed mass, potentially contributing to the maintenance of maternal genetic variation in seed mass in natural populations of wild radish.     

Subpopulation genetic structure of a plant panmictic population of Castanea sequinii as revealed by microsatellite markers

Castanea squinii Dode,an endemic tree widely distributed in China,plays an important role both in chestnut breeding and forest ecosystem function.The spatial genetic structure within and among populations is an important part of the evolutionary and ecological genetic dynamics of natural populations,and can provide insights into effective conservation of genetic resources.In the present study,the spatial genetic structure of a panmictic natural population of C.sequinii in the Dabie Mountain region was investigated using microsatellite markers.Nine prescreened microsatellite loci generated 29-33 alleles each,and were used for spatial autocorrelation analysis.Based on Moran's I coefficient,a panmictic population of C.sequinii in the Dabie Mountain region was found to be lacking a spatial genetic structure.These results suggest that a high pollen-mediated gene flow among subpopulations counteract genetic drift and/or genetic differentiation and plays an important role in maintaining a random and panmictic population structure in C.sequinii populations.Further,a spatial genetic structure was detected in each subpopulation's scale (0.228 km),with all three subpopulations showing significant fine-scale structure.The genetic variation was found to be nonrandomly distributed within 61 m in each subpopulation (Moran's I positive values).Although Moran's I values varied among the different subpopulations,Moran's I in all the three subpopulations reached the expected values with an increase in distances,suggesting a generally patchy distribution in the subpopulations.The fine-scale structure seems to reflect restricted seed dispersal and microenvironment selection in C.sequinii.These results have important implications for understanding the evolutionary history and ecological process of the natural population of C.sequinii and provide baseline data for formulating a conservation strategy of Castanea species.     

Seed mass of Indiana Dune genera and families: Taxonomic and ecological correlates

Summary Several surveys have documented an association among species between habitat type and seed mass, suggesting that habitat attributes impose a direct selective force on seed mass. Previous comparative surveys, however, have not controlled for the statistical effects of shared phylogenetic history (at the genus or family level) and life form when evaluating the relationship between habitat and seed mass. This study of the Indiana Dunes angiosperm flora provides statistical control of genus and family membership by: (i) partitioning out the statistical effect of genus membership prior to measuring the effect of habitat on seed mass, and (ii) seeking an association between habitat and seed mass within eight genera (206 species) and ten families (366 species). To measure the associations between ecological factors, taxonomic membership and seed mass, I examined life form, phenological schedules and seed mass among species in 8 genera distributed among 13 habitat types (assigned to 1 of 4 categories of inferred water and light availability). One-way ANOVAS indicated that genus, life form, habitat, water/light category, the onset of flowering and the duration of flowering accounted for 71%, 51%, 10%, 4%, 14% and 14% of the variance in seed mass, respectively. However, multi-factor ANOVAS measured the variance in seed mass accounted for by each variable independently of the others: only genus explained a significant proportion (11%). Genus membership is strongly associated with the other ecological factors, accounting for the difference between one-way and multi-factor ANOVAS. Within the ecologically widespread genera and families of this study, there was no significant association between water/light category and seed mass, even though this association can be detected across taxa. Among congeners and confamilials, interspecific variation in seed mass (measured as the coefficient of variation) was as high within habitat types as among them, suggesting that habitats do not provide upper limits to the range of seed mass exhibited by the species within them. A previous study of 648 Indiana Dune species showed that species segregate among habitats on the basis of seed size; large-seeded species tend to occupy closed habitats and small-seeded species tend to inhabit open habitats. This segregation creates the ecologically meaningful observation that low-light habitats support larger-seeded species than high-light habitats, even though this pattern cannot be detected independently of taxonomic membership. Generalist taxa may occupy a wide range of habitats for reasons other than their seed size. If this is a common feature of ecological generalists, it may not be possible to detect an association between habitat and seed size independently of taxonomic membership.     

Genetic variation,population structure and identification of yellow catfish, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mystus nemurus</Emphasis> (C&;V) in Thailand using RAPD,ISSR and SCAR marker

Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers were used to investigate the genetic structure of four subpopulations of Mystus nemurus in Thailand. The 7 RAPD and 7 ISSR primers were selected. Of 83 total RAPD fragments, 80 (96.39%) were polymorphic loci, and of 81 total ISSR fragments, 75 (92.59%) were polymorphic loci. Genetic variation and genetic differentiation obtained from RAPD fragments or ISSR fragments showed similar results. Percentage of polymorphic loci (%P), observed number of alleles, effective number of alleles, Nei’s gene diversity (H) and Shannon’s information index revealed moderate to high level of genetic variations within each M. nemurus subpopulation and overall population. High levels of genetic differentiations were received from pairwise unbiased genetic distance (D) and coefficient of differentiation. Mantel test between D or gene flow and geographical distance showed a low to moderate correlation. Analysis of molecular variance indicated that variations among subpopulations were higher than those within subpopulations. The UPGMA dendrograms, based on RAPD and ISSR, showing the genetic relationship among subpopulations are grouped into three clusters; Songkhla (SK) subpopulation was separated from the other subpopulations. The candidate species-specific and subpopulation-specific RAPD fragments were sequenced and used to design sequence-characterized amplified region primers which distinguished M. nemurus from other species and divided SK subpopulation from the other subpopulations. The markers used in this study should be useful for breeding programs and future aquacultural development of this species in Thailand.     

Characterising a Eucalyptus cladocalyx breeding population using SNP markers

Population structure, family relatedness and inbreeding within a first-generation Eucalyptus cladocalyx breeding population were analysed with single-nucleotide polymorphism markers to underpin quantitative trait analysis and breeding program management. The breeding population, comprising families selected from wild and cultivated stands, was found to be strongly structured ( $ {{\widehat{F}}_{\mathrm{ST}}} $ ?=?18 %), with two geographically defined groups of South Australian wild subpopulations: Kangaroo Island (KI) and South Flinders Ranges (SFR). The selections from cultivated stands were shown to be derived from SFR subpopulations of SFR and had similar levels of diversity, suggesting that they were established from a broad genetic base. Relatedness and inbreeding among families was heterogeneous, ranging from completely outcrossed and predominantly half-sib (HS) to completely selfed. Families from the cultivated stands had minimal inbreeding and were close to HS on average. Among SFR subpopulations, family-average inbreeding was negatively correlated with growth, suggesting inbreeding depression (ID). Inbreeding was high, on average, in the KI subpopulations; however, evidence of ID was absent, with highly inbred families amongst the most vigorous, perhaps indicative of purging of deleterious recessive alleles in a bottleneck event. The marker-based information suggested that modification of the usual assumptions of relatedness made in undertaking quantitative analysis of the first-generation populations would be desirable.     

Management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet for spring and autumn environmental benefit

When used in genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops, glyphosate provides great flexibility to manipulate weed populations with consequences for invertebrates and higher trophic levels, for example birds. A range of timings of band and overall spray treatments of glyphosate to GMHT sugar beet were compared with a conventional weed control programme in four field trials over 2 years. Single overall sprays applied between 200 and 250 accumulated day degrees (above a base air temperature of 3 degrees C; degrees Cd) and band applied treatments applied at 10% or 20% ground cover within the crop rows generally gave significantly greater weed biomass and seed rain than conventional treatments, while later band sprays (more than 650 degrees Cd) reduced seed return. Two overall sprays of glyphosate produced low weed biomass and generally lowest seed return of all treatments but tended to give some of the highest yields. However, the early overall sprays (200-250 degrees Cd) and band sprays gave as good or better yields than the conventional and were generally equivalent to the two overall-spray programme. Viable seeds in the soil after the experiment were generally higher following the early overall (200-250 degrees Cd) and the band spray treatments than following the conventional. The results show that altered management of GMHT sugar beet can provide alternative scenarios to those of the recent Farm Scale Evaluation trials. Without yield loss they can enhance weed seed banks and autumn bird food availability compared with conventional management, or provide early season benefits to invertebrates and nesting birds, depending on the system chosen. Conventional weed control does not have the flexibility to enable these scenarios that benefit both agriculture and environment, although there may be some options for increasing weed seed return in autumn.     

Efficacy of some plant extracts in the management of cercospora leaf spot of groundnut in the Sudan savanna of Nigeria

Field trials were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of neem seed, garlic clove, onion bulb, ginger rhizome and pawpaw leaf extracts applied as foliar spray in controlling cercospora leaf spot of groundnut in the Sudan savanna of Nigeria during the 2002 and 2003 cropping seasons. Ridomil was used as a positive check while the control was left untreated. Three spray regimes (once, twice and thrice) were evaluated. A strip plot design with three replications was used in setting up the experiments. Ex-Dakar, a cercospora leaf spot susceptible Spanish Valencia groundnut variety, was used as planting material. All the plant extracts reduced the incidence and severity of cercospora leaf spot in both seasons compared to the untreated crops. However, neem seed and garlic clove extracts significantly reduced the incidence and severity of the disease compared to the other plant extracts. Ridomil was more effective in controlling the disease than the plant extracts. Three sprays with the plant extracts gave better control of the disease than one or two sprays in the season. The highest seed yield of 3115 kg/ha and 3311 kg/ha in 2002 and 2003, respectively, were obtained with neem seed extract treatment while the lowest seed yield of 2134 kg/ha and 2334 kg/ha in 2002 and 2003, respectively, were recorded from the untreated crops. Also the highest seed yield of 3124 kg/ha and 3418 kg/ha in 2002 and 2003, respectively were obtained following three sprays compared to 2523 kg/ha and 2641 kg/ha for one spray in 2002 and 2003, respectively and 2840 kg/ha and 3085 kg/ha for two sprays in 2002 and 2003, respectively. The highest haulm yield of 4121 kg/ha and 4089 kg/ha in 2002 and 2003, respectively were also obtained following treatment with neem seed extract. The lowest haulm yield of 2951 kg/ha and 3045 kg/ha in 2002 and 2003 respectively, were recorded from the control. Three sprays gave higher haulm yield (4265 kg/ha and 4279 kg/ha in 2002 and 2003, respectively) than one and two sprays in the season. Neem seed extract could therefore be used to control cercospora leaf spot and to improve groundnut production in the Sudan savanna of Nigeria.     

Among- and within-patch components of genetic diversity respond at different rates to habitat fragmentation: an empirical demonstration

Habitat fragmentation is a ubiquitous by-product of human activities that can alter the genetic structure of natural populations, with potentially deleterious effects on population persistence and evolutionary potential. When habitat fragmentation results in the subdivision of a population, random genetic drift then leads to the erosion of genetic diversity from within the resulting subpopulation, random genetic drift then leads to the erosion of genetic diversity from within the resulting subpopulations and greater genetic divergence among them. Theoretical and simulation analyses predict that these two main genetic effects of fragmentation, greater differentiation among resulting subpopulation and reduced genetic diversity within them, will proceed at very different rates. Despite important implications for the interpretation of genetics data from fragmented populations, empirical evidence for this phenomenon has been lacking. In this analysis, we carry out an empirical study in population of an alpine meadow-dwelling butterfly, which have become fragmented increasing forest cover over five decades. We show that genetic differentiation among subpopulations (G(ST)) is most highly correlated with contemporary forest cover, while genetics diversity within subpopulation (expected heterozygosity) is better correlated with the spatial pattern of forest cover 40 years in the past. Thus, where habitat fragmentation has occurred in recent decades, genetic differentiation among subpopulation can be near equilibrium while contemporary measures of within subpopulation diversity may substantially overestimate the equilibrium values that will eventually be attained.