Insect repellents and associated personal protection for a reduction in human disease

Personal protection measures against biting arthropods include topical insect repellents, area repellents, insecticide‐treated bednets and treated clothing. The literature on the effectiveness of personal protection products against arthropods is mainly limited to studies of prevention of bites, rather than prevention of disease. Tungiasis was successfully controlled by application of topical repellents and scrub typhus was reduced through the use of treated clothing. Successful reduction of leishmaniasis was achieved through the use of topical repellents, treated bednets and treated clothing in individual studies. Malaria has been reduced by the use of insecticide‐treated bednets (ITN), certain campaigns involving topical repellents, and the combination of treated bednets and topical repellents. Although area repellents such as mosquito coils are used extensively, their ability to protect humans from vector‐transmitted pathogens has not been proven. Taken together, the literature indicates that personal protection measures must be used correctly to be effective. A study that showed successful control of malaria by combining treated bednets and topical repellents suggests that combinations of personal protection measures are likely to be more effective than single methods. Implementation of successful programmes based on personal protection will require a level of cooperation commonly associated with other basic societal functions, such as education and food safety.     

Olfactory responses of the antennal trichoid sensilla to chemical repellents in the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus

Insect repellents are widely used to protect against insect bites and thus prevent allergic reaction and the spread of disease. To gain insight into the mosquito’s response to chemicals repellents, we investigated the interaction between the olfactory system of the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus Say and chemical repellents using single sensillum recording. The interactions of 50 repellent chemicals with olfactory receptor neurons were measured in six different types of mosquito sensilla: long sharp trichoid (LST), short sharp trichoid (SST), short blunt trichoid I (SBT-I), short blunt trichoid II (SBT-II), short blunt trichoid-curved (SBT-C), and grooved peg (GP). A single olfactory neuron reacted to the chemical repellents in each of the sensilla except for SBT-I and SBT-II, where two neurons were involved. Other than LST and GP, which showed no or very weak responses to the repellents tested, all the sensilla showed significant excitatory responses to certain types of repellents. Terpene-derived chemicals such as eucalyptol, α-pinene, and camphor, stimulated olfactory receptor neurons in a dose-dependent manner and mosquitoes responded more strongly to terpene-derived chemical repellents than to non-terpene-derived chemicals such as dimethyl phthalate. Mosquitoes also exhibited a similar response to stereoisomers of chemicals such as (−)-β-pinene versus (+)-β-pinene, and (−)-menthone versus (+)-menthone. This study not only demonstrates the effects of chemical repellents on the mosquito olfactory system but also provides important information that will assist those screening new mosquito repellents and designing new mosquito control agents.     

Development of Melaleuca oils as effective natural-based personal insect repellents

For many decades effective insect repellents have relied on synthetic actives such as N,N -diethyl- meta -toluamide. Increasingly, consumers are seeking natural-based alternatives to many everyday products including insect repellents. While many studies have been published detailing the potential of essential oils to act as insect repellents, few oils have been identified as viable alternatives to synthetic actives. This study details the process involved in the selection of Australian essential oils effective as repellents and the subsequent testing of natural-based insect repellents using the selected oils. Using a combination of laboratory-based and field-based testing, oil from Melaleuca ericifolia was identified as being an effective insect repellent. When formulated into three different bases: an alcohol-based spray, an emulsion and a gel, these Melaleuca -based repellents were shown to be as effective at repelling mosquitoes Aedes vigilax (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae) and Verrallina carmenti (Edwards) (Diptera: Culicidae), the bush fly Musca vetustissima (Walker) (Diptera: Muscidae), and biting midges Culicoides ornatus (Taylor) (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and Culicoides immaculatus (Lee & Reye) (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) as a synthetic-based commercial repellent. This study has shown that effective insect repellents based on natural active ingredients can deliver repellency on par with synthetic actives in the field. Three Melaleuca -based formulations have been registered as repellents and are now commercially available.     

Chemical repellency in birds: relationship between chemical structure and avoidance response.

We examined how molecular structure of 24 anthranilate and benzoic acid derivatives correlated with drinking behavior in European starlings Sturnus vulgaris. The effectiveness of bird repellents was associated with basicity, the presence of an electron-donating group in resonance with an electron-withdrawing carboxylic group on a phenyl ring, and a heterocyclic ring in the same pi cloud plane as the phenyl ring. Of the benzoic acid derivatives tested in this study, methyl, ethyl, dimethyl, and linalyl anthranilate as well as anthranilic acid and 4-ketobenztriazine were repellent to birds. Water consumption was significantly reduced relative to control levels at concentrations as low as 0.05% (weight/volume) for the best repellents. Further statistical tests showed that reduction in consumption for the best repellents was absolute, not significantly different from zero consumption. Anthranilic acid isomers were moderately good repellents. The ability to generate a model predicting repellency allows for the efficient identification and development of ecologically sound, nonlethal, taxa-specific repellents to be used for the protection of wildlife in agricultural and industrial applications.     

Effectiveness of odour repellents on red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus</Emphasis>) and roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>): a field test

Chemical repellents are promoted as a method to reduce ungulate–vehicle collisions and ungulate browsing damages to agricultural and forestry resources. We tested the effectiveness of two odour repellents (Mota FL and Wolf Urine) on the foraging behaviour and area avoidance of free-ranging roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). The effects of the repellents were assessed by comparing deer visitation rates to sand arenas before and after application of repellents and visitation rates to control arenas. Neither of the tested products reduced deer visitation rates. Rapid habituation to olfactory stimuli and lack of sensitivity to predator odours may explain the ineffectiveness of the repellents to alter the behaviour of the deer. The results indicate that the tested products have no effects on roe deer and red deer behaviour and suggest that the effectiveness of the chemical area repellents as a measure to reduce deer–vehicle collision risk and browsing damages is questionable.     

Negative chemotaxis in Dictyostelium and Polysphondylium

A method has been described to measure negative chemotaxis in the cellular slime molds directly and to purify the repellents. Conclusive evidence is given that negative chemotaxis exists in the cellular slime molds and that it occurs generally in Dictyostelium and Polysphondylium. Amoebae respond shortly after their exposure to repellents, which are secreted by vegetative and not by preaggregative cells. The amoebae are sensitive to repellents in both development stages and contain enzyme(s) to inactivate them. Cross reactions of different species indicate that there is more than one repellent, although it cannot be excluded that the variability in response depends on the balancing effect of attractants and repellents.     

Terpenoid mosquito repellents: A combined DFT and QSAR study

Interactions between low-toxicity terpenoid mosquito repellents and lactic acid are studied at the HF and B3LYP level. The subsequent QSAR study shows that not only the structure of repellents but also the repellent–lactic acid complexes may play an important role. It suggests that further study on interactions between repellents and characteristic compounds from human host may be required in order to understand the repelling mechanism.     

酰胺类蚊虫驱避化合物与引诱物氨分子缔合作用的计算

【目的】为了探究驱避机理,此前选择萜类驱避化合物及与DEET(避蚊胺)具有类似结构的酰胺类驱避化合物,开展了驱避化合物与引诱气味组分(L-乳酸、羧酸等)缔合作用对驱避活性影响的研究。为了扩大驱避化合物的类型,本研究选择另外一组43个酰胺类驱避化合物,计算了它们与蚊虫引诱物氨之间的双分子缔合作用,以及该缔合作用对驱避活性的影响,从而为驱避机理研究提供帮助。【方法】用Gaussian 03软件优化驱避化合物单体和双分子缔合体的三维结构式;通过Ampac和Codessa软件建立结构与驱避活性之间的定量构效关系模型。【结果】驱避化合物与氨分子的缔合距离、角度和缔合能量分别是2.2~3.0,128~180°和14~25 k J/mol;最佳四参数模型中R2为0.8987,其中2个参数来自驱避化合物单体,分别是(1/6)X GAMMA polarizability(DIP)和ESPminimum net atomic charge for an H atom,另外2个参数来自双分子缔合体,分别是ESP-DPSA-2 difference in CPSAs(PPSA2-PNSA2)[Quantum-Chemical PC]和Minimum valency of a C atom。模型检验中训练集和测试集的相关系数平方的平均值分别为0.9013和0.8666。【结论】驱避化合物与氨分子之间存在弱氢键力缔合作用,驱避化合物分子的极化度及其与氨分子之间的极性相互作用、缔合体中分子间键相互作用及其电荷分布均对驱避活性产生显著影响,说明双分子缔合对驱避活性具有显著影响。模型检验表明最佳四参数模型具有良好的稳定性和预测能力。本研究可为寻找新型蚊虫驱避剂和揭示蚊虫驱避剂的作用机理提供参考。     

Repellents for Escherichia coli operate neither by changing membrane fluidity nor by being sensed by periplasmic receptors during chemotaxis

A long-standing question in bacterial chemotaxis is whether repellents are sensed by receptors or whether they change a general membrane property such as the membrane fluidity and this change, in turn, is sensed by the chemotaxis system. This study addressed this question. The effects of common repellents on the membrane fluidity of Escherichia coli were measured by the fluorescence polarization of the probe 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene in liposomes made of lipids extracted from the bacteria and in membrane vesicles. Glycerol, indole, and L-leucine had no significant effect on the membrane fluidity. NiSO4 decreased the membrane fluidity but only at concentrations much higher than those which elicit a repellent response in intact bacteria. This indicated that these repellents are not sensed by modulating the membrane fluidity. Aliphatic alcohols, on the other hand, fluidized the membrane, but the concentrations that elicited a repellent response were not equally effective in fluidizing the membrane. The response of intact bacteria to alcohols was monitored in various chemotaxis mutants and found to be missing in mutants lacking all the four methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs) or the cytoplasmic che gene products. The presence of any single MCP was sufficient for the expression of a repellent response. It is concluded (i) that the repellent response to aliphatic alcohols can be mediated by any MCP and (ii) that although an increase in membrane fluidity may take part in a repellent response, it is not the only mechanism by which aliphatic alcohols, or at least some of them, are effective as repellents. To determine whether any of the E. coli repellents are sensed by periplasmic receptors, the effects of repellents from various classes on periplasm-void cells were examined. The responses to all the repellents tested (sodium benzoate, indole, L-leucine, and NiSO4) were retained in these cells. In a control experiment, the response of the attractant maltose, whose receptor is periplasmic, was lost. This indicates that these repellents are not sensed by periplasmic receptors. In view of this finding and the involvement of the MCPs in repellent sensing, it is proposed that the MCPs themselves are low-affinity receptors for the repellents.     

Glycerol and ethylene glycol: members of a new class of repellents of Escherichia coli chemotaxis

By using the chemical-in-plug method, we found that glycerol and ethylene glycol caused negative chemotaxis in wild-type cells of Escherichia coli; the threshold concentration was about 10(-3) M for both chemicals. As with other known repellents, the addition of glycerol or ethylene glycol induced a brief tumble response in wild-type cells but not in generally nonchemotactic mutants. Experiments with mutants defective in various methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs) revealed that the presence of any one of three kinds of MCPs (MCP I, MCP II, or MCP III) was necessary to give a tumble response to these repellents. Consistently, it was found that the methylation-demethylation system of MCPs was involved in the adaptation of the cells to these repellents. The effect of glycerol or ethylene glycol was not enhanced by lowering the pH of the medium, and glycerol did not alter the membrane potential of the cells. All of these results suggest that glycerol and ethylene glycol are members of a new class of repellents which produce a tumble response in the cells by perturbing the MCPs in the membrane.     

Multiple activities of insect repellents on odorant receptors in mosquitoes

Several lines of evidence suggest that insect repellent molecules reduce mosquito-host contacts by interacting with odorants and odorant receptors (ORs), thereby ultimately affecting olfactory-driven behaviours. We describe the molecular effects of 10 insect repellents and a pyrethroid insecticide with known repellent activity on two highly specific Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) ORs, AaOR2 + AaOR7 and AaOR8 + AaOR7, exquisitely sensitive to key mosquito attractants indole and (R)-(-)-1-octen-3-ol, expressed in oocytes of Xenopus (Anura: Pipidae). Our study demonstrates that insect repellents can both inhibit odorant-evoked currents mediated by ORs and independently elicit currents in the absence of odorants. All of the repellents had effects on one or both ORs; most of these compounds were selective inhibitors and showed a high degree of specificity in their capacity to activate the two ORs. These results show that a range of insect repellents belonging to structurally diverse chemical classes modulate the function of mosquito ORs through multiple molecular mechanisms.     

Experimental use of two standard tick collection methods to evaluate the relative effectiveness of several plant-derived and synthetic repellents against Ixodes scapularis and Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae)

We used two standard tick collection methods to test the relative effectiveness of two natural product compounds (nootkatone and carvacrol, classified as an eremophilene sesquiterpene and a monoterpene, respectively, that are derived from botanical sources) with commercially-available plant-derived (EcoSMART Organic Insect Repellent, comprised of plant essential oils) and permethrin-based (Repel Permanone) repellents against Ixodes scapularis Say and Amblyomma americanum (L.). Cloth drags were equally effective in sampling both species of host-seeking nymphs, whereas CO, traps attracted primarily A. americanum. All four repellents performed well on drags, with nootkatone and Permanone Repel (100% repelled through 14 d) slightly more effective than carvacrol and EcoSMART (90.7% and 97.7% repelled at 14 d, respectively) at repelling I. scapularis nymphs. Although the same trend in percent repellency was noted in the CO2 trap trial against both A. americanum nymphs and adults, EcoSMART outperformed Permanone in repelling A. Americanum nymphs after 14 d in the drag trial. Generally, the effectiveness of all repellents tested declined over time. The use of tick drags and CO2 traps was rapid, inexpensive, and easy to use in determining the relative effectiveness of repellents in the field.     

硬蜱哈氏器嗅觉功能的研究

研究了五种硬蜱的哈氏器在不同虫期(若虫和成虫)和不同营养状态(饱或饿)对不同浓度的弱酸、弱碱以及对低温刺激的电生理反应.此外,比较了四种硬蜱成虫对五种驱避剂的行为反应.结果表明,硬蜱哈氏器能够感受氨和醋酸蒸气的刺激,反应的相对强度在一定范围内随蒸气浓度而变化.哈氏器还能感受温度的变化.从行为反应见到驱避剂对不同种类硬蜱的驱避强度不同,每种蜱对不同药物的敏感性也不同.截肢试验证明哈氏器是驱避剂的感受器.     

Inhibition of Anopheles gambiae Odorant Receptor Function by Mosquito Repellents

The identification of molecular targets of insect repellents has been a challenging task, with their effects on odorant receptors (ORs) remaining a debatable issue. Here, we describe a study on the effects of selected mosquito repellents, including the widely used repellent N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), on the function of specific ORs of the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. This study, which has been based on quantitative measurements of a Ca²⁺-activated photoprotein biosensor of recombinant OR function in an insect cell-based expression platform and a sequential compound addition protocol, revealed that heteromeric OR (ORx/Orco) function was susceptible to strong inhibition by all tested mosquito repellents except DEET. Moreover, our results demonstrated that the observed inhibition was due to efficient blocking of Orco (olfactory receptor coreceptor) function. This mechanism of repellent action, which is reported for the first time, is distinct from the mode of action of other characterized insect repellents including DEET.     

Trends in arthropod defensive secretions,an aquatic predator assay

Summary Twenty-five arthropod defensive chemicals were tested on a potential fish predator to assay basic repellency, interniche effectiveness and mimetic interactions among repellents, and predator tolerance to repellents.The defensive secretions of aquatic arthropods are more effective repellents than those of terrestrial or cryptozoic arthropods. Phenolic compounds are more effective than carbonylic or acidic compounds. Repellency is most effective in compounds of reduced water solubility. Repeated exposure to gradually increasing molar concentrations of benzoic acid resulted in a greater acceptability of this compound to fish predators. It is suggested that Mullerian mimicry systems based on large numbers of species may be susceptible to dilution effects in terms of effectiveness.     

Field Evaluation of Picaridin Repellents Reveals Differences in Repellent Sensitivity between Southeast Asian Vectors of Malaria and Arboviruses

Scaling up of insecticide treated nets has contributed to a substantial malaria decline. However, some malaria vectors, and most arbovirus vectors, bite outdoors and in the early evening. Therefore, topically applied insect repellents may provide crucial additional protection against mosquito-borne pathogens. Among topical repellents, DEET is the most commonly used, followed by others such as picaridin. The protective efficacy of two formulated picaridin repellents against mosquito bites, including arbovirus and malaria vectors, was evaluated in a field study in Cambodia. Over a period of two years, human landing collections were performed on repellent treated persons, with rotation to account for the effect of collection place, time and individual collector. Based on a total of 4996 mosquitoes collected on negative control persons, the overall five hour protection rate was 97.4% [95%CI: 97.1–97.8%], not decreasing over time. Picaridin 20% performed equally well as DEET 20% and better than picaridin 10%. Repellents performed better against Mansonia and Culex spp. as compared to aedines and anophelines. A lower performance was observed against Aedes albopictus as compared to Aedes aegypti, and against Anopheles barbirostris as compared to several vector species. Parity rates were higher in vectors collected on repellent treated person as compared to control persons. As such, field evaluation shows that repellents can provide additional personal protection against early and outdoor biting malaria and arbovirus vectors, with excellent protection up to five hours after application. The heterogeneity in repellent sensitivity between mosquito genera and vector species could however impact the efficacy of repellents in public health programs. Considering its excellent performance and potential to protect against early and outdoor biting vectors, as well as its higher acceptability as compared to DEET, picaridin is an appropriate product to evaluate the epidemiological impact of large scale use of topical repellents on arthropod borne diseases.     

定量计算萜类驱避化合物与二氧化碳缔合对其蚊虫驱避活性的影响

为验证萜类驱避化合物与嗅觉引诱物二氧化碳存在缔合作用, 并研究缔合作用对蚊虫驱避活性的影响。本研究借助计算化学的方法获得缔合体和缔合能量, 利用Gaussian View和Gaussian 03W软件分别构建和优化二氧化碳、 22个萜类蚊虫驱避化合物以及它们与二氧化碳缔合后的三维分子结构, 经Ampac 8.16转化后, 获得它们的缔合能量。借助定量构效关系计算方法研究缔合作用对驱避活性的影响, 利用Codessa 2.7.10计算获得驱避剂和缔合体的各类结构描述符, 从包括缔合体结构描述符及特征描述符在内的各类结构参数中筛选显著性参数, 以萜类驱避化合物对白纹伊蚊Aedes albopictus的校正驱避率的对数值为活性数据, 建立结构描述符与驱避活性的定量构效关系（quantitative structure-activity relationship, QSAR）模型。结果获得了22个萜类驱避化合物与二氧化碳缔合的缔合能量, 计算显示它们之间存在缔合作用并且可以形成缔合体; 获得1个R²为0.9643的4参数QSAR模型, 这4个参数所对应的结构描述符分别是COM-WNSA 3 Weighted PNSA (PNSA3*TMSA/1 000) ［Zefirov’s PC］, f-TerCO₂-Min e-n attraction for a C-O bond, M-Max 1-electron reaction index for an O atom, M-Min (>0.1) bond order of an H atom, 前2个参数分别为缔合体的整体结构描述符和碎片特征描述符。计算化学结果表明, 萜类驱避化合物与二氧化碳存在缔合作用, 该缔合作用对驱避活性的影响显著。     

Repellency of synthetic and plant-derived preparations for Culicoides imicola

Abstract The study was conducted to find a safer and longer lasting repellent for C. imicola than di-ethyl toluamide (DEET), to validate whether the current recommendations in Israel for application of repellents during an outbreak of disease caused by pathogens borne by Culicoides imicola are justified, and to test plant-derived preparations as potential replacements for the synthetic repellents. Seven repellents were compared by a method using treated netting across the entrance of a suction light trap. Those inferior to DEET were: oregano and Herbipet ® which showed a slight non-significant repellency for 2 h, Tri-Tec14 ™ which showed significant (P < 0.05) repellency with respect to controls for 2h and Stomoxin ® which showed significant (P < 0.05) repellency for lh. As the active ingredient of Stomoxin is permethrin, this indicates that recommendations to spray animals with this insecticide to prevent the spread of C.imico/a-borne pathogens will not be useful. The repellents superior to DEET were: the plant-derived material AglOOO that repelled significantly (P < 0.05) with respect to controls for up to 4h following a similar pattern to but somewhat more strongly than DEET, and pyrethroid-T which exerted significant (P < 0.05) repellency for 9h. Pyrethroid-T proved to be the best repellent tested, and if sprayed nightly it might provide protection from C. imicola-bome pathogens.     

Generic insect repellent detector from the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster

Background

Insect repellents are prophylactic tools against a number of vector-borne diseases. There is growing demand for repellents outperforming DEET in cost and safety, but with the current technologies R&D of a new product takes almost 10 years, with a prohibitive cost of $30 million dollar in part due to the demand for large-scale synthesis of thousands of test compounds of which only 1 may reach the market. R&D could be expedited and cost dramatically reduced with a molecular/physiological target to streamline putative repellents for final efficacy and toxicological tests.

Methodology

Using olfactory-based choice assay we show here that the fruit fly is repelled by not only DEET, but also IR3535 and picaridin thus suggesting they might have “generic repellent detector(s),” which may be of practical applications in new repellent screenings. We performed single unit recordings from all olfactory sensilla in the antennae and maxillary palps. Although the ab3A neuron in the wild type flies responded to picaridin, it was unresponsive to DEET and IR3535. By contrast, a neuron housed in the palp basiconic sensilla pb1 responded to DEET, IR3535, and picaridin, with apparent sensitivity higher than that of the DEET detectors in the mosquitoes Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti. DmOr42a was transplanted from pb1 to the “empty neuron” and showed to be sensitive to the three insect repellents.

Conclusions

For the first time we have demonstrated that the fruit fly avoids not only DEET but also IR3535 and picaridin, and identified an olfactory receptor neuron (ORN), which is sensitive to these three major insect repellents. We have also identified the insect repellent-sensitive receptor, DmOr42a. This generic detector fulfils the requirements for a simplified bioassay for early screening of test insect repellents.     

定量计算萜类蚊虫驱避化合物与羧酸缔合作用对其驱避活性的影响

【目的】驱避剂是防止蚊虫叮咬的良好个人防护用品,但其作用机理一直未被解释清楚。本研究利用化学计算手段对4种重要的人体引诱物（乙酸、丙酸、丁酸和戊酸）与22个萜类驱避化合物的缔合作用以及该作用对驱避活性的影响进行了研究,以期为蚊虫驱避机理研究提供新思路。【方法】利用GAUSS View软件构建引诱化合物分子、驱避化合物分子以及二者可能形成的缔合体结构,再利用GAUSSIAN软件优化所有结构,并计算它们的能量和各类参数;借助AMPAC和CODESSA软件计算出所有结构的描述符;以萜类驱避化合物对白纹伊蚊Aedes albopictus校正驱避率的对数值（logCRR）为活性数据,利用CODESSA软件建立描述符与驱避活性的定量构效关系模型。【结果】4种羧酸与萜类驱避化合物相互缔合的缔合能量大多在18~20 kJ/mol之间,缔合距离和角度分别在2.0~2.5 Å 和110°~180°内波动,符合氢键相互作用的特征。4个最优定量构效关系模型的R²值均大于0.9,模型中的参数都包含缔合体的描述符,表明引诱物 驱避物缔合作用与校正驱避率的对数值显著相关。【结论】4种羧酸与萜类驱避化合物之间存在中等强度的氢键缔合作用,该缔合作用对驱避活性具有重要影响。研究初步揭示了引诱物 驱避物缔合作用的存在,也为从新的角度研究蚊虫驱避机理提供了前期研究基础。