Distribution and conservation significance of endemic species of flowering plants in Peru

Using the data published in the Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru, we analyzed the elevational distributions of 5323 species reported as endemics from that country as a whole, for 10 families with the highest number of endemic taxa in Peru, and the distribution patterns of these species according to life form. We calculated the density of endemism (number of endemic species divided by area × 1000) and absolute number of endemic species among life forms and families, along an elevational gradient. Overall densities of endemics were 10–15 times higher at mid-elevation (2000–3500 m) than in the Amazonian lowlands (0–500 m). Absolute numbers of endemics peaked at 1500–3000 m for herbs, shrubs, and epiphytes, while trees, vines, and lianas showed maxima in the lowlands (0–500 m); yet densities of endemics for all life forms peaked at 1500–3000 m. Among the 10 families with the highest number of endemics, densities of endemics peaked at mid- to high elevation (1500–4500 m), but showed much disparity in the elevational distribution of absolute numbers of endemic species. Finally, the percentage of endemic species to total species is highest for herbs, shrubs, and epiphytes. Given that less than 10% of the land area for each of the montane zones (2000–4500 m) is protected compared to 13.5–29.9% in the lower elevations (0–1000 m), we recommend that priority be given to increasing the size of protected areas at mid- to high altitude in the Andean slopes to grant further protection in zones with the highest density of endemics. We also recommend that more emphasis be given to collecting and studying non-trees, since most endemic species belong to that class.     

Plant diversity in a changing world: status,trends, and conservation needs

The conservation of plants has not generated the sense of urgency—or the funding—that drives the conservation of animals, although plants are far more important for us. There are an estimated 500,000 species of land plants (angiosperms, gymnosperms, ferns, lycophytes, and bryophytes), with diversity strongly concentrated in the humid tropics. Many species are still unknown to science. Perhaps a third of all land plants are at risk of extinction, including many that are undescribed, or are described but otherwise data deficient. There have been few known global extinctions so far, but many additional species have not been recorded recently and may be extinct. Although only a minority of plant species have a specific human use, many more play important roles in natural ecosystems and the services they provide, and rare species are more likely to have unusual traits that could be useful in the future. The major threats to plant diversity include habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation, overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, and anthropogenic climate change. Conservation of plant diversity is a massive task if viewed globally, but the combination of a well-designed and well-managed protected area system and ex situ gap-filling and back-up should work anywhere. The most urgent needs are for the completion of the global botanical inventory and an assessment of the conservation status of the 94% of plant species not yet evaluated, so that both in and ex situ conservation can be targeted efficiently. Globally, the biggest conservation gap is in the hyperdiverse lowland tropics and this is where attention needs to be focused.     

Geographic distribution,conservation effectiveness,and gaps for national key protected wild plants in China

National key protected wild plants (NKPWPs) are species with important conservation value based on genetics, ecology, culture, and/or scientific research, which are also confronted with serious threats. However, their geographical distribution patterns and conservation status remain unclear. In this study, we compiled 1032 species of NKPWPs. We measured the diversity to identify hotspots of NKPWPs based on species richness, weighted range size rarity and a complementarity-based analysis. Comparing the distribution and hotspots of NKPWPs with the coverage of Chinese nature reserves (NRs), we assessed conservation effectiveness and identified conservation gaps. The results identified 13 diversity hotspots; only 9.5% of them were covered by NRs with >30% of the grid cell area, and even 19.5% were not covered at all by NRs. Overall, 44.7% of NKPWPs were effectively protected by national NRs. Despite this success, 571 species in Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Chongqing, Guangxi, Guangdong, southern Hainan, Taiwan, and northern Xinjiang remain unprotected by NRs. The protected proportion of plants with first-level protection was lower than that of plants with second-level protection. The low overall proportion of protected hotspots indicates that the conservation outlook for NKPWPs is not optimistic. This study identifies priority conservation areas and conservation gaps and provides a scientific reference for the conservation of wild plants in China.     

中国珍稀濒危保护植物在江苏省的自然分布及其特点

讨论了１７种中国珍稀濒危植物在江苏省的自然分布及其特点,它们分别为小叶银缕梅（Ｐａｒｒｏｔｉａ ｓｕｂａｅｑｕａｌｉｓ）、宝华玉兰（Ｍａｇｎｏｌｉａ ｚｅｎｉｉ）、天目木兰（Ｍａｇｎｏｌｉａ ａｍｅｏｎａ）、秤钎锤树（Ｓｉｎｏｊａｃｋｉａｘｙｌａｃａｒｐａ）、明党参（Ｃｈａｎｇｉｕｍ ｓｍｙｒｎｉｏｉｄｅｓ）、珊瑚苯（Ｇｌｅｈｎｉａ ｌｉｔｔｏｒａｌｉｓ）、独花兰（Ｃｈａｎｇｎｉｅｎｉａ ａｍｏ     

浙江省珍稀濒危植物物种多样性保护的关键区域

浙江省植物资源丰富,有野生维管植物215科1196属3283种,其中包含了我国特有属49个,浙江省特有植物约200余种,许多物种十分稀少,并受到严重威胁,亟待保护。但浙江省需优先保护的植物物种的分布并不是均匀的,有些地区的重要保护对象比较集中,对这些地区我们应该给予更多的保护。本文根据维管植物物种多样性、珍稀濒危植物的物种数量及个体数量特征、受威胁状况以及浙江省特有植物的分布情况,提出了浙江省珍稀濒危植物保护的7个关键区域：以西天目山为中心的浙西北山区,以古田山为中心的浙西山区,以九龙山为中心的浙西南山区,以凤阳山－百山祖为中心的浙南山区,以括苍山为中心的浙东山区,以天台山为中心的浙东丘陵,以普陀山为中心的舟山群岛。最后提出了浙江省植物物种多样性保护的几点建议。     

Aquatic plants diversity in arid zones of Northwest China: patterns, threats and conservation

We investigated aquatic plant diversity by conducting the field investigation and collecting the published data in the arid regions of Northwest China. Two hundred and twenty four taxa of vascular aquatic plants representing 64 genera and 34 families occur in this area, 8.48% of which are endemic. Among these, 1 genus and 6 species were new state records and 1 family, 9 genera and 29 species were new area records. Typhaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Juncaginaceae and Haloragaceae were the most frequent families (considering relative frequency of occurrence), whereas Cyperaceae, Potamogetonaceae and Ranuncnlaceae are the most species-rich. The most frequent genera were Typha, Potamogeton, and Triglochin, and the most species-rich were Potamogeton, Eleocharis and Scirpus. The most frequent species are Triglochin palustre, Myriophyllum spicatum, Potamogeton pectinatus and Typha angustifolia. Aquatic plants diversity is distributed unevenly in the region. The maximum species occurs in Dzungarian basin while the least species in Hexi corridor. The aquatic flora in arid zone of China is not distinctive although some endemic species are found, most species are widely distributed. Local aquatic plants diversity can be influenced by many factors such as hydrological alteration, habitat loss, over-grazing, high human population pressure, global climate change, an inappropriate economic development policy. Among them, the largest threat to aquatic plants biodiversity may be habitat loss due to hydrological alteration. In order to conserve the aquatic plants biological resources and biodiversity in this region, some strategies and measures must be suggested including strengthening scientific research and biodiversity education in the local people, balancing economic development and ecological conservation, and enhancing governmental assistance and subsidy to the local residents.     

Aquatic plants are open flexible structures – a reply to Sukhodolov

1. Aquatic plant stands are flexible, mesh‐like open structures that undergo modification in shape and experience a cascade of declining flow velocities and micro‐scale Reynolds numbers with increasing distance into the stands. It is not possible to define or measure the frontal area of this open flexible plant structure. Total wetted area was used as a reference area for drag because it can be measured with high accuracy and it was the most suitable measure of plant size impeding the flow and absorbing light for photosynthetic production. What is important is that it is made absolutely clear which type of reference area that is used. 2. Numerous important relationships in biology are open to discussion because of differences in dimensions between variables. Relating dimensionless drag coefficients to dimensionless Reynolds numbers resolve such discussions, but defining Reynolds numbers cause other problems. Relating drag coefficients to macro‐scale Reynolds numbers would result in exactly the same form of relationship as to water velocity because macro‐scale Reynolds numbers changed in direct proportion to water velocity in the experiments, while kinematic viscosity and characteristic length within species remained constant.     

南京市珍稀濒危植物的分布与保护

对南京市珍稀濒危植物的种类、分布、生境及濒危原因进行了调查和分析,并对主要种类进行了就地保存、迁地保存或就地-迁地保存实验。调查发现,南京市共有珍稀濒危植物17种1变种,隶属9科17属,主要分布在丘陵山地;人为因素是其濒危的主要原因。对明党参(Changium smyrnioides H.Wolff.)、短穗竹〔Brachystachyumdensiflorum(Rendle)Keng〕及秤锤树(Sinojackia xylocarpa Hu)等种类的保护研究结果表明,采取一定的人为干预措施,可使南京市珍稀濒危植物的种群数量得到有效的保存和恢复。     

植物的基因流及其在濒危植物保护中的作用

基因流是影响植物种群遗传结构的重要因子,在濒危植物的保护中也有重要的意义。本文介绍了基因流的测定方法,分析了基因流的格局及其与种群遗传分化的关系,并介绍了基因流在濒危植物保护中的应用前景及途径     

Indigenous cultivation and conservation of Totora (Schoenoplectus Californicus, cyperaceae) in Peru

In coastal and highland Peru, totora,Schoenoplectus californicus (C. A. Meyer) Soják (Cyperaceae), has played a central cultural role. Totora was used to build boats, houses, bridges, mats, containers, clothing, string, and fans and has been noted for its use as both food (for humans and livestock) and fertilizer. We conducted unstructured interviews in Spanish and followed participant observation methods in Huanchaco and Lake Titicaca located in coastal and highland Peru, respectively. We hypothesized that a plant with high saliency to the local culture would have a high level of associated indigenous conservation practices. In addition, the level of care and management should increase as the resource became more valued or increasingly scarce. We found that, despite a long established tradition of sustainable use, the people were increasingly relying on intensive cultivation of this plant. The value of totora to local residents justified the efforts spent in maintaining adequate supplies of this plant. Increases in population, politics, and yearly variation in climate patterns have created a reduction in available totora and contributed to an increase in management practices.     

Spatial distribution and habitats of useful plants: an initial assessment for conservation on an indigenous territory, Panama

In order to examine the spatial distribution of forest resources on local territories and to understand the factors controlling such distributions, we studied the spatial patterns of a group of 23 useful plant species on the territory of a Kuna community in the province of Darien, Panama. A stratified random sampling scheme was used to survey the distribution and abundance of the species across a 3500 ha area around the village. Data on the physical environment as well as the geographic coordinates of the sample plots were also obtained. A series of canonical analyses was conducted to evaluate the species–environment relationships and to identify spatial structures in the species distributions left unexplained by the environmental variables. Four distinct distribution patterns were identified among the species; these were most strongly explained by land-use, the degree of canopy closure and topography. Significant spatial structures, independent of the measured environmental variables, were related to anthropogenic pressure and an edaphic gradient, and the habitat associations of the individual species were described. The results obtained from this case study suggest that land-use dynamics may play a predominant role in structuring inhabited landscapes, and that diversity in distribution patterns and habitat associations will require a combination of spatially explicit management strategies to ensure the local resource base.     

夏腊梅的遗传多样性及其保护

夏腊梅（Sinocalycanthus chinensis)是国家二级保护的珍稀濒危植物,夏腊梅属（Sinocalycanthus)的唯一代表,仅间断分布于我国浙江省临安市天台县极狭小的范围内,本文采用等位酶淀粉凝胶电泳技术对采自上述两地的天然居群和天目山自然保护区引种的人工居群的553个样品进行了遗传多样性检测,并与浙江腊梅（Chimonan-thus zhejiangensis)作对比,检测结果表明夏腊梅的遗传多样性极低,从14个酶系统检测到的23个位点看,在物种水平上每位点的等位基因平均数（A）为1.2,多态位点（P）占21.7%,观察杂合度（Ho)为0.010。在居群水平上,A=1.0-1.1,P=0-13.0%,Ho=0-0.014。而对照种浙江腊梅杭州植物园人工居群的上述指标分别为A=1.5,P=39.1%,Ho=0.071。夏腊梅的2个自然居群之间在Mdh-4,Pgd-3和Sod-1发生显著的分化,但居群内亚居群间几乎没有分化,在天目山自然保护区引种的人工居群中没有检测到多态性,说明作为迁地保护的天目山自然保护区人工居群并没能有效地保护夏腊梅的遗传多样性,由于目前自然保护区基本上采用不加人为干预的经营方式,划人龙塘山自然保护区内的自然亚居群会因为森林的自然演替而灭绝,所以,自然保护区目前的这种经营方式不适合对夏腊梅的保护,夏腊梅的例子说明,当我们对保护对象的生物学特性缺乏认识时,我们既不知道应该保护什么,也不知道应该如何保护。     

Islands: stability, diversity, conservation

Islands present both a diversity and a stability paradox. They are often highly species-poor but have considerable biological interest in terms of extraordinary endemic genera and taxonomically isolated groups. They appear to be stable, as in some cases these organisms have persisted for many millions of years, and having an oceanic climate, extreme climatic events may be comparatively rare. However, when subject to extrinsic (anthropogenic) disturbance they do not appear to be stable, but often suffer catastrophic ecological change. These apparent paradoxes are resolved when it is realized that all these features are consequences of the same island characteristics: biotic isolation and oceanicity. As a result of these two characteristics, far oceanic islands are quantitatively different from continental systems in the nature of their ecological processes, which appear to give rise to an extreme punctuated equilibrium model of evolutionary change. Endemics may be ancient relict endemics displaying prolonged stasis and persistence, or products of adaptive radiation representing rapid punctuational events. A process-based definition of a relict endemic (palaeoendemic) is one whose founding lineage (i.e. the original continental source taxon) has not left any descendents. A corollary of this definition is that the time of divergence between an endemic and its continental sister-group should predate the colonization of the island by the now endemic lineage. An example is Dicksonia arborescens which has been on St Helena for at least 9 Myrs and no longer occurs in the likely source area of Africa. These relict endemics, frequent on islands, are important as the last remnants of tranches of biodiversity that have vanished elsewhere. Island conservation strategies require an integrated understanding of both sides of the diversity and stability paradox so that both island processes and island organisms can be conserved.     

The Atlantic elements in the Swiss flora: distribution, diversity, and conservation status

The purpose of this study was to examine the composition, distribution, ecology, and conservation status of the Atlantic elements of the Swiss flora. About 195 Atlantic and 80 Mediterranean–Atlantic vascular plant species of the European flora have been used as the basis for our analysis. The complete list of 3,143 taxa has been used as the reference for the Swiss flora. The distributions of the species are illustrated in coincidence maps based on the computer database of the Data Centre of the Swiss Flora in Geneva, Switzerland. Our study demonstrates clearly that the Atlantic flora of Europe requires a new biogeographical appraisal. The Swiss flora comprises 66 Atlantic and Mediterranean–Atlantic taxa, which are taxonomically and ecologically highly diverse. Switzerland contains 44% of all European Sub-Atlantic plants. This confirms the Sub-Atlantic geographical position of Switzerland. Only one Eu-Atlantic species growing in Switzerland, Vicia orobus, can be classified as native with certainty. This species is critically endangered and merits the highest conservation priority. Although a very alpine country, Switzerland has a relatively large number of Mediterranean–Atlantic species. The Atlantic and Mediterranean–Atlantic plants are a very threatened group in Switzerland, with wetland plants the most imperilled ecological group. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

The distribution,diversity, and conservation status of Cycas in China

As ancient gymnosperm and woody plants, cycads have survived through dramatic tectonic activities, climate fluctuation, and environmental variations making them of great significance in studying the origin and evolution of flora biodiversity. However, they are among the most threatened plant groups in the world. The principal aim of this review is to outline the distribution, diversity, and conservation status of Cycas in China and provide suggestions for conservation practices. In this review, we describe the taxonomy, distribution, and conservation status of Cycas in China. By comparing Chinese Cycas species with its relatives worldwide, we then discuss the current genetic diversity, genetic differentiation of Cycas, and try to disentangle the potential effects of Quaternary climate changes and topographical events on Cycas. We review conservation practices from both researchers and practitioners for these rare and endangered species. High genetic diversity at the species level and strong genetic differentiation within Cycas have been observed. Most Cycas species in southwest China have experienced population retreats in contrast to the coastal Cycas's expansion during the Quaternary glaciation. Additionally, human activities and habitat fragmentation have pushed these endangered taxa to the brink of extinction. Although numerous efforts have been made to mitigate threats to Cycas survival, implementation and compliance monitoring in protection zones are currently inadequate. We outline six proposals to strengthen conservation measures for Cycas in China and anticipate that these measures will provide guidelines for further research on population genetics as well as conservation biology of not only cycads but also other endangered species worldwide.     

Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods

Many types of action can be taken in favour of the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants. Some of these are undertaken directly at the places where the plants are found, while others are less direct, such as some of those relating to commercial systems, ex situ conservation and bioprospecting. In the latter cases, actions taken will not lead to in situ conservation unless they feedback to improvements in the field. Probably the single most important role for medicinal plants in biological conservation is their use to achieve conservation of natural habitats more generally. This stems from the special meanings that medicinal plants have to people, related to the major contributions that they make to many people's lives in terms of health support, financial income, cultural identity and livelihood security. Problems associated with biopiracy or (the other side of the coin) excessive restrictions on research have come to assume policy prominence in the general thematic area of medicinal plant conservation and use. The fair and equitable sharing of benefits from bioprospecting is required under the Convention on Biological Diversity, but it is not always easy to achieve these ideals in practice. While experience is accumulated in how this may practically be achieved, it is important, at the present time, that controls imposed on scientific research to prevent biopiracy or theft of local and indigenous intellectual property do not unduly restrict research that has little or nothing to do with these matters.     

江苏珍稀濒危植物的多样性、分布及保护

掌握重点保护野生植物的濒危现状及评估濒危等级是制定科学保护策略的关键。根据江苏第二次重点保护野生植物资源调查(2012-2018)以及近年来相关调查资料, 我们采用世界自然保护联盟(IUCN)物种红色名录的濒危等级与评估标准, 对江苏分布的珍稀濒危植物的现状与濒危等级进行了评估与分析。结果表明: (1)江苏41种国家重点保护和濒危野生植物的濒危等级可以分为7个等级。包括地区灭绝(RE) 2种, 占总种数的4.88%; 极危(CR) 10种, 占24.39%; 濒危(EN) 6种, 占14.63%; 易危(VU) 13种, 占31.71%; 近危(NT) 2种, 占4.88%; 无危(LC) 2种, 占4.88%; 数据缺乏(DD) 6种, 占14.63%。其中, 受威胁物种(包括CR、EN和VU)有29种, 占总种数的70.73%。(2)建议的江苏重点保护野生植物有74种, 隶属于40科62属; 它们的受威胁比例较高, 达74.32%。江苏人口众多、环境资源压力较大, 近年来生产经营和土地利用方式的改变以及宣传教育不足很可能是导致这些原生物种濒危的主要原因。因此建议: (1)尽快制定江苏省级重点保护野生植物名录; (2)加强科学研究, 同时对部分濒危植物进行就地保护和迁地保护, 积极开展野外回归、近地保护和动态监测; (3)继续加大对重点保护野生植物的保护管理和宣传力度。