Development of subcutaneous fat in Spanish and Latin American children and adolescents: Reference values for biceps,triceps, subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds

Subcutaneous fat skinfolds represent a reliable assessment instrument of adiposity status. This study provides current percentile references for four subcutaneous skinfolds (biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac) applicable to children and adolescents in Spain and in Latin American countries where data are scarce.The design consisted of a cross-sectional multicenter study performed with identical methods in 5 countries (Argentina, Cuba, Mexico, Spain and Venezuela). Total sample comprised 9163 children and youths (boys 4615 - girls 4548) aged 6–18 years, healthy and without apparent pathologies. Percentiles 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, 75, 90, 95 and 97 were calculated by the LMS method. Sexual dimorphism was assessed using the t-test and age differences with ANOVA. Normalized growth percentile references were obtained according to sex and age for each skinfold. The mean values of four skinfolds were significantly greater in girls than boys (p < 0.001) and, in both sexes, all skinfolds show statistical differences through age (p < 0.001) with different magnitudes.Except triceps in girls, peaks between 11 and 12 years of age are more noticeable in boys than in girls. Although the general model of growth is known, the skinfold measurements show variability among populations and differences of magnitude are presented according to the analyzed population. Therefore, these age and sex-specific reference percentile values for biceps, triceps, subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds, derived from a large sample of Spanish and Latin American children and adolescents, are a useful tool for adiposity diagnosis in this population for which no reference values were available.     

Seasonal variation and sex differences in the nutritional status in two local populations of wild Japanese macaques

Seasonal variations and sex differences in the nutritional status in two local populations of wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) were examined. It was hypothesized that the ecological condition and/or reproductive strategies of each sex determine the nutritional condition and its seasonal fluctuation in each sex. Morphometric measures such as body mass, thoracic and femoris circumferences, skinfold thickness in four places (triceps, biceps femoris, subscapular, and abdomen), and wet mass of mesenteric and omental fat were used for comparisons between sexes, seasons, and populations. Animals of the Shimane population were larger than those of the Boso population in most morphometric measures, abdominal skinfold, and mesenteric and omental fat mass, suggesting environmental and/or genetic differences in the two populations. Females of both populations had larger skinfolds and mesenteric and omental fat mass than males, indicating that females had more fat than males. Females showed seasonality in most measures, having two peaks of body mass, thoracic and femoris circumferences, abdominal skinfold, and mesenteric and omental fat masses in early spring and late fall. In contrast, males exhibited no clear seasonal variations for most measurements, except for biceps femoris and subscapular skinfolds, which showed peaks in summer. Most morphometric measurements significantly correlated to each other, particularly in females, but most skinfolds had no correlation with other measurements. These findings suggest that sexual dimorphism in body composition and its fluctuation may be affected by the different reproductive strategies of males and females.     

Growth profile of rural Meitei children of Manipur state of India

Patterns of growth in 10 anthropometric measurements among the rural Manipuri children (N=425), aged 5 to 14 years, with poor socio-economic backgrounds are reported. The anthropometric dimensions include weight, stature, sitting-height, head, chest and midupper-arm circumferences, biepicondylar widths of humerus and femur, and triceps and biceps skinfolds. Except skinfolds, the boys measured more than the girls in all measurements at all ages, except from 10 to 12 years in weight, stature, sitting-height, and chest and mid-upper-arm circumferences. Across all ages, the girls had thicker fat folds. Up to 12 years, the children lie approximately on the 10th centile of NCHS in stature and weight. The arm circumferences was below the 3rd centile of the Dutch children, until 11 years. The triceps fat fold fluctuated between 10th and 25th centiles of US whites. The rural Meiteis were taller and heavier than rural Burmese and urban Meiteis. The overall growth performance of the rural Meitei children was poor as compared to US, Urban Chinese, and well-nourished Indian children.     

Handedness in comparison with the asymmetry of the upper extremities]

In 1990 221 males (88 children, age 3.5-7.25 years and 133 adults, age 20-44 years) were investigated. The sample was divided into two groups based on handedness; 140 individuals were right-handed and 81 left-handed. 10 measurements were taken at the upper limbs. In addition, marked handedness, handclasping and armfolding were determined. The last three traits showed no statistically significant connection. It was determined that measurements of length, breadth and circumference are more often significantly asymmetric in favor of the right side in right-handers than in left-handers. Further, skinfolds of right-handed individuals are larger on the left side. Partially reverse results were found for left-handers as a whole, however, the results are more irregular. A difference in the degree of asymmetry exists between children and adults. Asymmetries of breadth and circumference measurements as well as forearm skinfold are larger in adults. Taking into account the error of measurement, frequencies of R > L, R = L and L > R for right- and left-handed individuals were evaluated using the chi 2-test for significance. Preponderance of measurements on the dominant side could often be secured statistically.     

Reproducibility of anthropometric measurements in children: a longitudinal study

The purpose of this study was to establish the reproducibility of a series of anthropometric measures performed twice during one week during a three year period in boys and girls. The subjects of this investigation were 39 children (21 boys and 18 girls), 9-10 year of age at the beginning of the study. Children were measured three times with one year interval. Children were classified by Tanner stage 1-2 during the first measurements, stage 1-3 during the second measurements and stage 1-4 during the third measurements. Body height and weight were measured and BMI calculated. All anthropometric parameters were measured according to the protocol recommended by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (Norton & Olds 1996). Nine skinfolds, 13 girths, eight lengths and eight breadths/lengths were measured. The reproducibility of body height (r = 0.995-0.999), body weight (r = 0.990-0.999) and BMI (r = 0.969-0.999) was very high in boys and girls. The intraclass correlations (ICC), technical errors (TE) and coefficients of variation (CV) were quite different depending on the measurement site of the skinfold thickness. It was surprising that the ICCs were highest and TEs and CVs were lowest during the second year of the measurement. The computed ICC was high, and TE and CV values were quite similar and relatively low in girth, length and breadth/length measurements. It was concluded that the reproducibility of girths, lengths and breadths/lengths in children is very high and the reproducibility of skinfolds is high. Specifically, the reproducibility is very high immediately before puberty in boys and girls.     

Family resemblance for anthropometric traits II. Assessment of maternal occupational and age effects

The present study was based on a cross-sectional sample of 1326 subjects (197 fathers, 466 mothers, 307 sons and 356 daughters) belonging to 488 nuclear families from the province of Biscay (Basque Country, Spain), with the purpose of estimating the degree of familial resemblance, for several anthropometric traits, by analysing the correlation coefficients between parent-offspring pairs. Height, weight, biacromial and bicrystal breadths, humerus and femur biepicondylar breadths, arm, waist and hip circumferences, biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, thigh and calf skinfolds were taken from each individual. BMI, WHR and the sum of the seven skinfolds was computed. The mother's occupation and the age of offspring were taken into account, since the combination of all these factors might have an effect on familial resemblance. The mothers were classified into housewife (HM) and working mothers (WM). The offspring were divided into prepuberal, puberal and postpuberal subgroups. Standardised residuals were used to compute father-offspring (FO) and mother-offspring (MO) relations through correlation coefficients computed by maximum likelihood. The results confirm the influence of age on the correlations, since FO correlations revealed an increasing trend in HM's children for weight and another six variables as they grew older. On the other hand, the weight change tends to decrease with age in FO correlations within the WM group. Depending on mother's occupation and children's age, the global trend in the sample results in higher correlations in the second group (WM) than in the first one (HM) for the whole age range, but specially in FO correlations before puberty, where four variables (weight, bicrystal breadth, triceps and subscapular skinfolds) yield statistically significant differences.     

Body fat in urban and rural male college students of Eastern India

Male college students (N = 381) residing in several districts of Eastern India, classified into two groups, urban (N = 193) and rural (N = 188), were studied by anthropometric measurements of skinfold thicknesses in several sites of the body to determine their body fat content. The mean value of percentage of body fat was found to be significantly higher (P < 0.001) in the urban group of students (12.07 ± 3.04) than in the rurals (11.04 ± 2.63). The mean values of skinfold thicknesses of the biceps, triceps, and subscapular regions were also found to be higher in urbans (P < 0.01), but no such significant differences in mean values of supra-iliac and abdominal skinfolds were found between the two groups of students. Most of the subjects of both the groups had a greater thickness of the abdominal skinfold compared to thickness of the biceps, triceps, and suprailiac skinfolds. It was found that the college students of Eastern India were leaner than the youths of North America, Europe, Japan, and Northern India.     

Estimates of the Prevalence of Obesity in Canadian Children

Childhood obesity is becoming a topic of great concern due to the rising prevalence of this condition in North America. Studies conducted in the United States have indicated that the prevalence of obesity has increased dramatically over the past few decades. The purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of obesity in Canadian children between the ages of 5 and 12 years by examining data from two national and two regional surveys. The 85th percentiles of each of four anthropometric indices derived from large normative populations were used as diagnostic criteria for obesity. As expected, the resulting prevalences varied according to the criteria used. A significant increase in childhood obesity between the 1981 to 1988 national surveys was observed when the three indices which used skinfolds were applied. Weight-for-height percentiles did not indicate an increase in obesity in these samples. Regional samples showed a less than expected prevalence of obesity among the middle-class children and a higher than expected rate among the inner city boys. It can be concluded that there is a need for a defined criteria for identifying obesity in children in order to avoid confusion resulting from the wide variation in estimates of prevalence resulting from different standards and measurements. Using adiposity-based criteria for obesity it was clearly evident that the prevalence of obesity has increased in Canadian children.     

Urinary growth hormone excretion in 657 healthy children and adults: normal values, inter- and intraindividual variations.

Urinary growth hormone (u-GH) excretion was measured in 547 healthy children and 110 adults by ELISA with a detection limit of 1.1 ng/l u-GH after prior concentration of the urine samples (20- to 30-fold). u-GH excretion values were significantly dependent on the pubertal stage (p less than 0.0001) with maximum values in Tanner stage 3 for girls and 4 for boys. This corresponded to a peak in u-GH excretion between 11.5-14.5 years in girls and 12.5-16 years in boys. Additionally, u-GH excretion in adults was significantly higher than in prepubertal children (p less than 0.001). The day/night ratio of u-GH excretion (pg/h) was significantly higher in females than in males (p less than 0.01). In Tanner stages 1-4, u-GH excretion during the day was lower than that at night, whereas the opposite was true in late puberty and in adult women. The interindividual variation of u-GH excretion within the same Tanner stage was considerable and approximately double the intraindividual variation. The day-to-day variation could be further reduced by collection of three consecutive urine samples. The variations were larger if night samples instead of 24-hour samples were considered. The expression of u-GH excretion in nanograms per gram creatinine did not diminish the observed variation and blunted the pubertal increase in u-GH excretion. In conclusion, (1) u-GH excretion depends significantly on age, sex and pubertal maturation as does the day/night ratio of u-GH excretion. (2) The interindividual variation in u-GH excretion is considerable.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Growth and malnutrition of rural Zimbabwean children (6-17 years of age)

The rural environment is an important factor in delayed growth in developing countries. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of poor rural living conditions on the growth of a Shona sample in Zimbabwe. In total, 982 subjects aged 6-17 years were analyzed. Mean values of height, weight, skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, biceps, medial calf), cormic index, body mass index (BMI), arm composition (total upper arm area, upper arm muscle area, arm fat area, and arm fat index), fat percentage (%F), centripetal fat ratio (CFR), and the contribution of each skinfold to the adiposity of the trunk and upper limbs are presented. Weight, height, BMI, cormic index, SSCP, TRCP, arm circumference, and arm composition are compared with NHANES percentiles. Boys and girls showed stunting and underweight at ages 11-15 and 8-15, respectively; boys presented particularly severe malnutrition and their means of height and weight were below the 10th percentile. The means of arm circumference, UMA, UFA, and TRCP were below the 15th percentile in both sexes. The contribution of the skinfolds generally showed an overall prevalence of TRCP in both sexes; the contribution of SSCP was prevalent only for the 16- to 17-year-old boys. Males presented a higher CFR than girls after 14 years while females showed an irregular pattern. There was a high incidence of brachycormia and mesocormia in females and males, respectively. Height, weight, and BMI were similar to the values observed in other sub-Saharan countries, although body size was slightly larger than in South Africa and smaller than in Tanzania. The results provide a useful database for future comparisons.     

Age trends in anthropometric characteristics among 6-9 years old Bengalee Hindu school girls of Kolkata, India

A cross-sectional study of 431 6-9 years old urban Bengalee Hindu schoolgirls of Kolkata, India, was undertaken to study age trends in anthropometric characteristics including regional and subcutaneous adiposity. The anthropometric variables measured included height, weight, sitting height (SH), waist (WC), hip (HPC), thigh (TC), mid-upper arm (MUAC) and medial calf (MC) circumferences as well as triceps (TSF), biceps (BSF), subscapular SUBSF), suprailliac (SUPSF) and medial calf (MCASF) skinfolds. The results revealed, that there was a significant increasing age trend for all the anthropometric variables including the two derived variables: body mass index (BMI) and subischial leg length (SLL). For all variables, the lowest and the highest means were observed at the age of 6 and 9 years, respectively. The maximum increase in weight, BMI, all linear measurements, WC and HPC were observed during the period 6-7 years of age. In general, all skinfolds recorded similar yearly increments. More importantly, this study clearly indicated that among Bengalee girls aged 6-9 years, the highest amount of linear growth (height, SH and SLL) was observed at 6 years of age. The overall adiposity (BMI) also recorded the maximum increment during this period. The unique data presented here can be used as reference values for urban Bengalee Hindu girls aged 6-9 years.     

Serum insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3, and the pubertal growth spurt in the female rhesus monkey

While there is good evidence suggesting IGF-I links to pubertal development and crown-rump length growth among rhesus monkeys, linkages between IGF-I and other measures of morphological growth have not been established. In this study, the pubertal growth spurt in a number of morphological characteristics of female rhesus monkeys is related to serum endocrine status of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and its binding protein, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3), to test the hypothesis that elevations in IGF-I and IGFBP-3 coincide with the time of greatest growth rate of different morphological characteristics. A longitudinal study of pubertal growth among four female rhesus monkeys was carried out across a 3-year period. Morphometric measurements included weight, crown-rump length, foot-length, and skinfolds at five sites (biceps, triceps, abdominal, subscapular, and suprailiac). These measures were taken as being representative of total mass, skeletal growth of the trunk and head, limb length, and body fatness, respectively. Measurements were carried out as closely as possible to 3-monthly, with interpolations being performed to standardise the data to exactly 3-monthly intervals for all individuals. Blood samples were taken at time of morphometry. Elevations in serum IGF-I and IGFBP-3 took place in a manner similar to that of humans, and across the period associated with onset of puberty. Mean 3-monthly gain in crown-rump length and foot length showed significant peaks across the measurement period, while mean 3-monthly gains in weight and sum of five skinfolds did not. Greatest foot length gain occurred on average between 3-3.5 years of age, while crown-rump length gain was greatest between 3.75-4 years of age. Periods of greatest gain in crown-rump length and foot length took place across the period of elevated serum IGF-I levels, which was between 3-4.5 years of age. Significant elevations in IGF-I and IGFBP-3 were not coincident with greatest gains in foot length or crown-rump length. Thus the hypothesis does not hold true for the two measures showing significant peaks in 3-monthly gain across the measurement period. The nature of the endocrine impact on macaque morphology remains unclear, although this may be fundamental to the understanding of the variation in the pubertal growth spurt and its influence on morphology at maturity both within and across primate species.     

Static and dynamic differences among five types of skinfold calipers

Thirty-eight skinfold calipers were compared in terms of dial accuracy, downscale force, and pressure at jaw openings of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mm. Dynamic measures were made on four thicknesses of foam rubber. Foam rubber was used to simulate the compressibility of skinfolds and to eliminate subject and tester variability. Five caliper types were tested: 10 Harpenden (HRP), 9 Lange (LNG), 12 Slim Guide (85SG), 4 Skyndex (SKN), and 3 Lafayette (LF). Within-type variation was small and consistent across openings for dial accuracy, force, pressure, and foam rubber compressed thickness. Between-type pressures differed (p less than 0.01), with the HRP and LNG calipers having the highest but similar pressures and the SKN, LF, and 85SG calipers having the lowest but similar pressures. LF and LNG calipers (which differed from each other) had higher compressed foam rubber means than HRP, SKN, and 85SG calipers (p less than 0.01), which were similar to each other at three of four thicknesses. When average pressure was used as the covariate, differences between types were still large, with 97.5-99.3% of the variation explained by type. Compressibility of foam rubber was shown to be caliper specific. It is concluded that there are static and dynamic differences between the five major types of skinfold calipers. When measurer error is eliminated, the HRP, 85SG, and SKN calipers are similar to each other, but they give lower values than the LNG or LF calipers by approximately 50-100%, depending on compressed thickness. These differences should be noted when comparing skinfolds measured with dissimilar calipers.     

Motor unit activity and surface electromyogram power spectrum during increasing force of contraction

Twelve male subjects were tested to determine the relationship between motor unit (MU) activities and surface electromyogram (EMG) power spectral parameters with contractions increasing linearly from zero to 80% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). Intramuscular spike and surface EMG signals recorded simultaneously from biceps brachii were analyzed by means of a computer-aided intramuscular MU spike amplitude-frequency (ISAF) histogram and an EMG frequency power spectral analysis. All measurements were made in triplicate and averaged. Results indicate that there were highly significant increases in surface EMG amplitude (71 +/- 31.3 to 505 +/- 188 microV, p less than 0.01) and mean power frequency (89 +/- 13.3 to 123 +/- 23.5 Hz, p less than 0.01) with increasing force. These changes were accompanied by progressive increases in the firing frequency of MU's initially recruited, and of newly recruited MU's with relatively larger spike amplitudes. The group data in the ISAF histograms revealed significant increases in mean spike amplitude (412 +/- 79 to 972 +/- 117 microV, p less than 0.01) and mean firing frequency (17.8 +/- 5.4 to 24.7 +/- 4.1 Hz, p less than 0.01). These data suggest that surface EMG spectral analysis can provide a sensitive measure of the relative changes in MU activity during increasing force output.     

Waist Circumference and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Prepubertal Children

Objective: Intra‐abdominal fat has been identified as being the most clinically relevant type of fat in humans. Therefore, an assessment of body‐fat distribution could possibly identify subjects with the highest risk of adverse lipid profile and hypertension. Few data on the relationship between body‐fat distribution and cardiovascular risk factors are available in children, especially before puberty. Research Methods and Procedures: This cross‐sectional study was undertaken to explore the relationship between anthropometric variables, lipid concentrations, and blood pressure (BP) in a sample of 818 prepubertal children (ages 3 to 11 years) and to assess the clinical relevance of waist circumference in identifying prepubertal children with higher cardiovascular risk. Height, weight, triceps and subscapular skinfolds, waist circumference, and BP were measured. Plasma levels for triacylglycerol, total cholesterol, high‐density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1), and apolipoprotein B (ApoB) were determined. Results: Females were fatter than males (5.8 [3.5] vs. 4.8 [3.3] kg of fat mass; p < 0.01). Males had higher HDL cholesterol and ApoA1/ApoB plasma concentrations than females (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01, respectively). Waist circumference had a higher correlation with systolic and diastolic BP (r = 0.40 and 0.29, respectively; p < 0.001) than triceps (r = 0.35 and 0.21, respectively; p < 0.001) and subscapular (r = 0.28 and 0.16, respectively; p < 0.001) skinfolds and relative body weight (0.33 and 0.23, respectively; p < 0.001). Multivariate linear model analysis showed that ApoA1/ApoB, HDL cholesterol, total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol, and systolic as well as diastolic BP were significantly associated with waist circumference and triceps and subscapular skinfolds, independently of age, gender, and body mass index. Discussion: Waist circumference as well as subscapular and triceps skinfolds may be helpful parameters in identifying prepubertal children with an adverse blood‐lipids profile and hypertension. However, waist circumference, which is easy to measure and more easily reproducible than skinfolds, may be considered in clinical practice. Children with a waist circumference greater than the 90th percentile are more likely to have multiple risk factors than children with a waist circumference that is less than or equal to the 90th percentile.     

Overweight in urban schoolchildren assessed by body mass index and body fat mass in Dalian, China

In order to assess overweight in urban schoolchildren (298 boys and 298 girls) aged 9-16 years in Dalian, China, their body height, weight, skinfolds at triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac, and body circumferences of mid-upper arm, waist and hip were measured. The results showed that the prevalence of overweight, based on the United States Centers for Disease Control 2000 reference values using body mass index (BMI), was 22.9% in boys and 10.4% in girls, which was higher than that of indicated in Chinese national surveys of recent decades. More boys were overweight than girls due to excessive increase in body fat, although the prevalence of overweight in girls prevalence increased from 13 years. Discussion here focuses on the effects of behavioral patterns on overweight in Dalian schoolchildren, paying attention to gender difference.     

A comparison of skinfolds and leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance for the assessment of body composition in children

BACKGROUND: This field-based investigation examined the congruence between skinfolds and bioelectrical impedance in assessing body composition in children. METHODS: Subjects were 162 female and 160 male children 10-15 years of age. Skinfold measures obtained at the triceps and medial calf and a leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance system were used to determine percent fat using child-specific equations. Pearson product moment correlations were performed on the percent fat values obtained using skinfolds and bioelectric impedance for the entire data set. Separate correlations were also conducted on gender and age/gender subsets. Dependent t tests were used to compare the two techniques. RESULTS: Percent fat did not differ between skinfolds and bioelectrical impedance for the total subject pool. Bioelectrical impedance overestimated percent fat in girls by 2.6% and underestimated percent fat in boys by 1.7% (p < 0.01). Correlations between skinfolds and bioelectrical impedance ranged from r = 0.51 to r = 0.90. CONCLUSIONS: Leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance may be a viable alternative field assessment technique that is comparable to skinfolds. The small differences in percent fat between the two techniques may have limited practical significance in school-based health-fitness settings.     

Birth weight and subsequent adiposity gain in Swedish children and adolescents: a 6-year follow-up study

We examined whether birth weight (BW) predicts changes in body composition over a 6-year period in Swedish children and adolescents. For this purpose, a total of 247 children (55.5% girls) and 162 adolescents (60.5% girls) were included in the study and were followed up 6 years later. BW was obtained from parental records. We measured weight, height, waist circumference, and the bicep, tricep, subscapular, suprailiac, and medial calf skinfolds, and we calculated BMI, fat-free mass (FFM), and the sum of five skinfolds. Physical activity was assessed by accelerometry. Changes in pubertal status and baseline anthropometric estimates were used as confounders in all analysis. In the children cohort, we observed that BW was inversely associated with changes in BMI (β = -0.736, P = 0.002) and the sum of five skinfolds (β = -6.381, P = 0.009) regardless of confounders and physical activity, only in girls. We did not find any significant association between BW and adiposity gain estimates in the adolescent cohort. These findings give further support to the concept that low BW may have a programming effect of subsequent adiposity gain from childhood to adolescence. We also confirm the sex-related differences in the programming effect of body composition.     

Blood lead level and nutritional status indicators in preadolescent Polish schoolchildren

BackgroundEnvironmental pollutions with heavy metals may have toxic effects on human health and development. One of the most detrimental is lead exposure, which may disturb neurodevelopment and linear growth in children. However, data on the effect of lead exposure on nutritional and weight status in children are limited, thus this study aimed to assess the effect of blood lead (Pb) level on nutritional and weight status in preadolescent schoolchildren from the industrialized, mining region in southwestern Poland.MethodsOur study sample involved N = 709 schoolchildren (402 boys and 307 girls) in the preadolescent developmental period (7–11 years of age for boys and 7–10 years of age for girls). Anthropometric measurements were used to assess nutritional and weight status: body mass index (BMI), mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) and skinfolds thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, abdominal and the sum of skinfolds). Blood Pb level was evaluated and divided into two groups: above (>3.7 μg/dL) and below median value (≤3.7 μg/dL).ResultsAnalysis of covariance (with children’s age controlled as a covariate) revealed that children with blood Pb level above median value had significantly lower values of BMI, MUAC and all skinfolds (at least p < 0.01). However, this effect was significant only in boys, whereas in girls differences were non-significant (p > 0.05). The highest effect size of blood Pb level was noted for skinfolds thicknesses (partial η²: 0.015 for the sum of skinfolds).ConclusionsNutritional status in children with higher blood Pb level is significantly impaired in preadolescent boys, who appear to be more sensitive to this environmental factor. Our findings indicate a particular need for nutritional and environmental interventions among preadolescent children in regions with higher lead exposure.