How bryophytes came out of the cold: successful cryopreservation of threatened species

The use of ex situ techniques for the conservation of threatened plants has been increasing over the past decades. Cryopreservation is often used for the long-term storage of plant germplasm where conventional methods (i.e. seedbanking) are inappropriate. Simple encapsulation–dehydration protocols were developed for the cryopreservation of bryophytes at The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, as part of an ex situ project for the conservation of UK threatened species. The applicability of these methods was tested on 22 species with a broad range of ecological requirements and found to be highly successful across the board. Regeneration rates from frozen material were >68% for all species tested and half had regeneration rates of 100%. The high regeneration rate and broad applicability of the protocols across a range of species was attributed to a combination of the inherent totipotency of bryophytes and the in-built recovery periods in the pre-treatment protocol. In conclusion, bryophytes are well suited to cryopreservation and such techniques would be applicable for the long-term storage of similar conservation collections across the globe.     

Translocation of Otostegia bucharica,a highly threatened narrowly distributed relict shrub

Translocation is a recognized means of rescuing imperiled species but the evidence for the long-term success of translocations is limited. We report the successful translocation of reproductive individuals of a critically endangered shrub Otostegia bucharica from a site facing imminent habitat destruction into a nearby natural population of the species. The relocated plants were visited the year after planting and 13 years later to assess short-and long-term plant survival. Significant percentage of plants that survived transplanting shock and very dry spring following transplanting(around 36%), and further decrease of this number in the next 12 years by only 14%, indicated that O. bucharica is amenable to translocation using reproductive plants. Based on results of species distribution modeling, and failed attempts of ex situ cultivation, we propose introduction of this species into areas with suitable climatic and soil conditions.However, because there is currently no nature reserve in Uzbekistan having suitable conditions for the species under the present climate and that expected in the near future, and because all known habitats of O. bucharica are exposed to the very strong anthropogenic pressure, establishment of a new protected area, awareness building and involvement of local community in conservation activities are required to prevent extinction of this extremely rare species.     

A preliminary assessment of changes in plant-dwelling insects when threatened plants are translocated

Translocation of threatened species is a tool used increasingly to conserve biodiversity, but the suite of co-dependent species that use the threatened taxa as hosts can be overlooked. We investigate the preliminary impact of translocating three threatened plant species on insect species and the integrity of insect assemblages that depend on these plants as their hosts. We compare the insect assemblages between natural populations of the threatened species, related non-threatened plant species growing wild near the threatened plants, and threatened plants translocated to another site approximately 40?km away. We used host breadth models and a coextinction risk protocol to determine which insect species are potentially host-specific on the threatened plants, and then assessed these insects?? potential presence at the translocation site. We found that insect assemblages on naturally-occurring threatened plants had more individuals, higher species density and higher species richness than assemblages on translocated plants. For one plant species, Leucopogon gnaphalioides, species composition differed significantly between wild and translocated populations (P?<?0.001). Furthermore, four insect species that were host-specific to Banksia brownii and B. montana were not detected on the translocated plants. Instead, translocated plants supported insect assemblages more similar to those of related plant species from the surrounding area. We conclude that threatened plant translocations that involve seed collection and propagation may have limited benefit for individual dependent species or the supported insect assemblage. Additional conservation actions will be required to maintain the diversity of insect assemblages and host-dependent relationships.     

Ex situ conservation of plant diversity in Romania: A synthesis of threatened and endemic taxa

Romania hosts a relatively high species diversity, including 3,829 vascular and 979 non-vascular spontaneous plant taxa. Multiple national red lists exist, with the number of taxa assessed as threatened varying greatly between them, from 548 to 1,438, and with number of taxa assigned to a given threat category also varying between the different sources. A composite list including all taxa mentioned in at least one of the selected red listings from Romania is required in order to compensate for this lack of consensus and to assess their ex situ conservation status. In this study, we synthesized data from the national red lists and counted 1,220 spontaneous vascular plant species and 201 subspecies, of which 77 are endemic and 76 subendemic for Romania. In addition, 18 non-red-listed endemics and 14 subendemics have been added, bringing the total to 1,453 threatened and (sub)endemic plant taxa, representing almost 38% of the total native vascular flora of Romania. Despite the large network of protected areas in Romania, many taxa are still being threatened with extinction in the region mainly due to anthropogenic pressure. Several ex situ conservation measures have been employed to assure a more substantial buffer against plant extinction in the wild, supported by thorough and adequate conservation strategies and multiple means to reintroduce taxa back to their natural habitats. Consequently, our second aim was to evaluate the ex situ conservation status of these threatened and (sub)endemic plants from Romania, focussing on both conventional methods (cultivation in botanic gardens, seed banking) and biotechnological approaches (in vitro tissue culture, medium-term storage and cryostorage). Of the 1,453 taxa included in our list, 642 (44.2%) are conserved by ex situ approaches. Of these, 524 are harboured in the most important botanic gardens throughout Romania, while 156 are currently held in long-term seed banks locally or in the Millennium Seed Bank of the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew (UK). Conversely, only 64 taxa from the list are preserved at the national level through in vitro cultures, and cryopreservation protocols have been developed for only 8 taxa. Overall, more than half of the threatened and (sub)endemic vascular flora from Romania remains unprotected outside the classical in situ conservation measures. For red-listed bryophytes, only 0.6% are preserved in national ex situ collections. Moreover, some aspects related to population genetic studies and the genetic stability of ex situ conserved plants are also briefly discussed, as essential prerequisites for applied biodiversity conservation programs. Finally, considering the distribution range of targeted taxa, we included a synthesis of biotechnological approaches at both national and international level. Our study presents not only a first assessment of the ex situ conservation status of national red listed flora, but also, to our knowledge, the most comprehensive and updated overview of the rare, threatened and (sub)endemic taxa from Romania. This evaluation will provide a supporting tool for national decision- and policy-making actions for biodiversity conservation, using both in situ and ex situ approaches. We also highlight the need for an updated red list for the Romanian flora that accurately follows the IUCN assessment criteria and protocols.     

Translocations: Providing Outcomes for Wildlife, Resource Managers, Scientists, and the Human Community

The World Conservation Union (1987) defines a translocation as a release of animals with the intention of establishing, reestablishing, or augmenting an existing population. Despite frequent use as a tool for the management of threatened and endangered wildlife, the full benefits of translocations often go unrealized. In this article, I demonstrate how translocations can achieve outputs for conservation management, conservation science, and the wider human community, using North Island (NI) Saddleback or Tieke ( Philesturnus rufusater ) as an illustrative example. From a conservation management perspective, NI Saddleback have been salvaged from a relic population of less than 500 birds on 484-ha Hen Island to a metapopulation of approximately 6,000 birds on 13 offshore islands and at two mainland New Zealand sites. These translocations have reduced the risk of global extinction for this species and helped restore the ecosystems involved. All these translocations have occurred in the past 42 years from known source populations and with known numbers of birds released. The resulting replicated serial population bottlenecks provide numerous scientific opportunities for conservation and biological research. Although the first Saddleback translocations were to reserves closed to the public, subsequent translocations have been to open reserves, providing the wider human community with an opportunity to see and be actively involved in the management of a threatened endemic species. This has raised the profile of both NI Saddleback and other species and has provided wider community conservation benefits. These three outputs illustrate the value of translocations for resource management and conservation science and for increasing community interest, participation, and investment in biological conservation.     

种质资源保存的战略问题和面临的挑战

植物种质资源保存,特别是种子库保存是各种迁地保护措施中最为经济有效的方法。通过对成千上万个物种的有效保存,种子库为减缓物种的灭绝和气候变化对生物多样性的影响发挥了特别关键的作用。本文较为详细地介绍了“中国西南野生生物种质资源库”的立项背景和最新进展,同时介绍了世界上其它几个主要的植物迁地保存设施,特别是英国皇家植物园的“千年种子库”。结合“全球植物保护策略”讨论了中国植物濒危状况,估计我国受威胁的物种比例达20—25％,甚至更高。本文还简要讨论了种子保存中的一些科学问题,包括超低温保存,并强调了植物分类学和种子生物学的学科建设在植物种质资源保护中的重要意义。     

Conservation of plant diversity in Korea

Korea is a land of contrasts. The mountainous Korean peninsula arches north and northwest towards the Russian and Chinese borders, where the last areas of old growth coniferous forest and the land formed five forest types. Plant and habitat diversity in Korea has been largely damaged by various kinds of human activities. The plant diversity of Korea is severely threatened due to the high population density and rapid industrialization since the 1960s, as well as the illegal collection of wild plants for ornamental, medicinal, and food purposes. Natural areas have been greatly fragmented and survive only as ecological islands surrounded by modified cultivated and industrial lands. For instance, more than 60 industrial parks are located along the coast, and these have contributed to the rapid destruction of plant diversity in the coastal areas of the peninsula. The modern concept of plant conservation in Korea is still in an infant stage. The cooperation of plant conservation bodies with disciplinary approaches based on conservation biology are essential strategies to pursue plant conservation. The capacity building for plant conservation in Korea has different management regimes by the relevant ministries. Since the late 1990s, the plant conservation body Korean Plant Specialist Group of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Species Survival Commission (IUCN SSC) has been closely linked with international conservation bodies for in situ and ex situ conservation management. Under the umbrella of the national plant conservation strategies, the different strategies and working agencies can be fully integrated. Furthermore, the systematic approaches for the recovery of threatened species, as well as habitat monitoring over the long-term basis, will need to be supported by a stable budget policy. Also, protocol for the conservation of rare and endangered plant species, including recovery works in Korea, is strongly needed.     

注意植物迁地保护中的遗传风险

稀有濒危植物迁地保护的长期目标之一就是要保护物种的遗传多样性和进化潜力。介绍了稀有濒危植物在植物园迁地保护过程中存在的一系列遗传风险。由于引种或取样的不足,容易导致被保存的物种缺乏足够的遗传代表性;盲目的引种、不合理的定植以及材料的来源不清则会导致稀有濒危植物的遗传混杂、近交衰退或杂交衰退;人为选择和生长环境的改变也容易造成濒危物种对迁地保护的遗传适应。在实际的迁地保护工作中,这些遗传风险往往被忽视。植物迁地保护中遗传风险将严重影响稀有濒危物种的回归和恢复。植物园应当重视濒危植物的遗传管理,以降低或避免迁地保护中的遗传风险。Abstract: Conserving genetic diversity of rare and endangered species and their evolutionary potential is one of the long-term goals of ex-situ conservation. Some potential genetic risks in ex-situ conservation in botanical gardens are presented. The preserved species may lack genetic representativity because of poor sampling. Inappropriate plantations, inadequate records and unclear kinships jeopardize endangered species to genetic confusion, inbreeding depression or outbreeding depression. Artificial selection and habitat conversion also potentially result endangered plants in adapting to ex-situ conservation, which had been usually overlooked. All the genetic risks can decrease the success of reintroduction and recovery. Therefore, appropriate genetic management should be carried out in botanical gardens to decrease or avoid genetic risks in ex-situ conservation.     

森林遗传资源保护研究进展

森林遗传资源的保护事关现代及后代的利益,已引起全球的极大关注,自70年代以来,就地保护与迁地保护作为主要的战略在森林遗传资源保护实践中使用。一般来说森林遗传资源的就地保护可以通过建立自然保护区来实现。迁地保护主要包括种子库、田间基因库、种子园及细胞或组织培养等技术。就地保护和迁地保护应当相互补充,两者结合使用是保存森林遗传多样性的有效方法。对森林遗传资源保护战略的选择以及因贸易而濒危的热带材用树及其保护问题也作了简要评述。     

长果秤锤树保护现状的初步研究

本文从自然环境、种群分布、数量、种群结构、人为破坏、保护及管理等方面分析了湖南石门长果秤锤树的就地保护现状,并从种子繁殖、扦插繁殖、栽培、试管保存及开发利用潜力等方面总结了武汉植物所近年来对长果秤锤树进行迁地保护研究的初步成果,并提出了相应的保护措施。     

Plant diversity in a changing world: status,trends, and conservation needs

The conservation of plants has not generated the sense of urgency—or the funding—that drives the conservation of animals, although plants are far more important for us. There are an estimated 500,000 species of land plants (angiosperms, gymnosperms, ferns, lycophytes, and bryophytes), with diversity strongly concentrated in the humid tropics. Many species are still unknown to science. Perhaps a third of all land plants are at risk of extinction, including many that are undescribed, or are described but otherwise data deficient. There have been few known global extinctions so far, but many additional species have not been recorded recently and may be extinct. Although only a minority of plant species have a specific human use, many more play important roles in natural ecosystems and the services they provide, and rare species are more likely to have unusual traits that could be useful in the future. The major threats to plant diversity include habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation, overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, and anthropogenic climate change. Conservation of plant diversity is a massive task if viewed globally, but the combination of a well-designed and well-managed protected area system and ex situ gap-filling and back-up should work anywhere. The most urgent needs are for the completion of the global botanical inventory and an assessment of the conservation status of the 94% of plant species not yet evaluated, so that both in and ex situ conservation can be targeted efficiently. Globally, the biggest conservation gap is in the hyperdiverse lowland tropics and this is where attention needs to be focused.     

Rescue and Restoration: Experimental Translocation of Amorpha herbacea Walter var. crenulata (Rybd.) Isley into a Novel Urban Habitat

Though translocations of rare populations should be considered only as the last resort for species’ conservation, when habitat destruction is imminent, it may be the only means to preserve a species. With over half the known, wild federally endangered Crenulate leadplant (Amorpha herbacea var. crenulata), Fabaceae, growing on unprotected land slated for development, preserving this unprotected population was critical. We rescued whole plants, cuttings, and seeds for an experimental translocation. Into a restored pine rockland, once dominated by the invasive exotic tree Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), we transplanted plants from different sources and of different sizes. Plants used were rescued from an unprotected site, seedlings, and 1‐, 2‐, and 7‐year‐old plants from Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden’s ex situ collection, creating a novel population in a new habitat. We also evaluated which propagule type and source had the best survival, growth, and reproduction. After 40 months, overall transplant survival was 71%. Large whole plants, rescued and nursery grown, had the best survival rates (86 and 78%), whereas cuttings had 67% survival and seedlings had only 26% survival. The restored site, once nearly a monoculture of S. terebinthifolius, is now dominated by 104 native plant species, including 17 naturally recruited state listed, plus the one translocated federally endangered plant species. In addition, one federally threatened snake species was observed on the site. These studies demonstrate that botanic garden collections not only play a vital role in the conservation of species’ genetic diversity but also can be used as source material for habitat restoration.     

中国龙脑香科植物受胁状况及迁地群落保护探讨

广义的龙脑香科植物是泛热带分布,中国有5属13种,其中1种为引种栽培,仅分布于云南、广西、海南和西藏。许多龙脑香科植物具有很高的经济价值。由于近年来各地森林遭受强度破坏,加之其自身特殊的生物生态学特征和种子生物学特性,大多数种类的生存受到严重威胁。该文主要介绍中国龙脑香科植物目前的受威胁状况、具体保护研究工作及其不足,并提出了进行迁地群落建设的保护策略。     

Control of invasive species for the conservation of biodiversity in Mediterranean islands. The LIFE PonDerat project in the Pontine Archipelago,Italy

We present the EU LIFE PonDerat project, which is aimed at restoring the natural ecosystems of the Pontine Archipelago, a group of islands located off the western coast of Italy. The spread of invasive species is a major environmental threat on these islands, which are rich in rare habitats and endemic species and are important sites for the conservation of Mediterranean biodiversity. The project focuses on the conservation of species and habitats that are protected by EU laws but are currently threatened by introduced plants and animals. The main targets of the control measures are black rats, feral goats, mouflons and invasive plants of the genus Carpobrotus. Conservation measures focus on the shearwaters Puffinus yelkouan and Calonectris diomedea, which are endemic to the Mediterranean and are listed in Annex I of the European Bird Directive. Conservation measures also focus on island habitats of great biogeographical value, which are listed in Annex I of the European Habitats Directive and are seriously threatened by introduced herbivores and by invasive plants. The main outcome expected from this project is that the restoration of ecosystem functions will enhance the breeding success and population size of shearwaters and lead to the recovery of target habitats.     

Early effects of the strategies of creating a genetic refuge and direct translocation for conserving and restoring populations of native brown trout

1. The conservation of salmonid inter‐ and intra‐specific diversity is a well‐known challenge, and general management guidelines and conservation processes are available. However, research demonstrating the outcomes of practical conservation actions is largely lacking. 2. We monitored the spatiotemporal genetic and demographic evolution of a native Mediterranean brown trout population in a river in the French Alps to assess the efficacy and early effects of genetic refuge (i.e. cessation of stocking) and wild trout translocation strategies. We also studied the use of angling as a tool to limit the introgression of the wild standing population. 3. We found that the rate of non‐native alleles in wild populations was age dependent, underpinning the importance of using age profiles in the design of genetic conservation studies. 4. Genetic refuge and direct translocation of wild trout resulted in a rapid and significant decrease in the percentages of non‐native alleles. Moreover, the genetic refuge strategy resulted in a significant reduction in the number of pure non‐native individuals, without changing trout densities, whilst direct translocations resulted in the establishment of dense, self‐sustaining native trout populations. Direct translocations changed the distribution of genotype categories and increased densities up to 55‐fold in 3 years. Our results also showed that angling resulted in a selective pressure on non‐native trout introduced at fry stage, whereas non‐native trout issued from natural recruitment were not affected. 5. Our study provides insights for improving the efficacy of practical conservation policies and can be used in other native freshwater fish conservation plans. Proactive measures such as direct translocation need to be implemented together with passive approaches such as genetic refuge policies. Before implementing such actions, accurate genetic and demographic studies at small geographical scales are essential to ensure that no self‐sustaining population of non‐native fish is present. To obtain rapid colonisation, we recommend introducing fish along whole river sections rather than concentrating on a few river stretches. Angling pressure can be used as an additional tool to improve restoration.     

Translocation of an endangered insect species,the field cricket (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gryllus campestris</Emphasis> Linnaeus, 1758) in northern Germany

Relocations of species have become a tool widely used in nature conservation, but insects have rarely been considered as targets. Here, we present a translocation project of the field cricket (Gryllus campestris L. 1758), which is a threatened species at the northern edge of its range. Only ten populations were left in Lower Saxony (Germany), illustrating the need for urgent conservation measures. After 10 years of monitoring and management of an isolated population, 213 nymphs were captured and released at another nature reserve in summer 2001. The size of the new population increased significantly from 27 singing males in spring 2002 to 335 singing males in spring 2005. The occupied area increased from 5.66 ha to 33.14 ha. Altogether, the translocation project was evaluated as successful, but the inland dune proved to be not as suitable for the species as initially expected. Our results indicate that translocations of highly reproductive insect species are promising, as long as the release locality contains sufficiently large areas of suitable habitat and a high number of wild juveniles from a closely located and large source population are released in a climatically favorable period. Management and restoration of habitats, as well as continuous monitoring are of crucial importance for the success of the translocation project. Moreover, the importance of a high quality of cooperation between conservationists, authorities, foresters, farmers, financiers and scientists cannot be overstated.     

初论中国兜兰属植物的保护策略及其潜在资源优势

兜兰属植物是最受人们喜爱的兰科植物之一 ,中国是兜兰属植物的主要产地。与世界其他地区一样 ,我国兜兰属植物也面临持续的商业采集压力。本文回顾了世界兜兰属植物的贸易、栽培和育种的历史 ,认为有菌播种方法可以更有效地保护兜兰属植物的多样性 ,同时也能够为兜兰属植物的人工栽培和育种提供新的手段。目前我国兜兰属植物一方面仍遭受各种人为因素的干扰 ,急需采取措施加以保护 ;另一方面对我国兜兰属植物的认识还不够全面和深入 ,还不能对人为因素影响的程度和范围作出客观的评价 ,特别是有关兜兰属植物的繁育技术还很薄弱。针对这种现状 ,作者提出在较长时期内我国兜兰属植物的保护策略宜以原地保护 (insituconservation)为主 ,同时积极开展有关兜兰属植物保护生物学的基础研究 ,大力发展和完善迁地保护 (exsituconservation)技术体系。最后 ,讨论了我国兜兰属植物的潜在资源和生态等方面的优势。     

Threatened woody flora as an ecological indicator of large herbivore introductions

Rewilding and translocations of large herbivores for conservation purposes have increased in recent times, with numerous introductions inside and outside their native range. This study aims to analyze the use of threatened plant taxa as a possible ecological indicator of large herbivore introductions. We examined the effects of a threatened large ungulate, the Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), on both endangered and vulnerable woody taxa after its introduction in 1970. Contrary to our hypothesis, the herbivore impact on threatened woody species was higher than that found on widespread woody plants. The results reveal that 35.7% of the threatened species showed the highest possible level of herbivore damage in contrast to 6.5% for the widespread species. Threatened species were preferred over common plants, probably due to their greater palatability. Overall plant cover, including neighboring species, was also an important factor determining browsing damage and, thus, habitats with low ground cover should be particularly considered in conservation plans. Herbivore damage on common taxa should be taken with caution since they could mask unsustainable herbivore densities for threatened woody taxa or protected habitats. The use of threatened woody taxa through the studied ecological indicators (herbivore damage, plant preferences, habitat use and regeneration success) represented a useful tool to assess the sustainability of large herbivores introductions and to establish a priority conservation ranking for threatened plant species. These findings highlight the deleterious effects of overabundant ungulate populations regardless its origin (exotic or native) and the need of monitoring threatened woody taxa to better estimate the suitability and sustainability of large herbivore introductions.     

Recovering threatened plant species and their habitats: The need for integrated action

As an introduction to the Special Issue on the restoration of threatened plant species and their habitats,this editorial shows how the various papers in the issue address the range of in situ interventions involved in species population management and restoration of their habitat, together with examples of case studies implementing these actions. It stresses the need for integrating these various interventions.It highlights the importance of protected areas in providing a degree of protection for threatened species but also the need to complement this with actions at the species level to ensure the effective conservation and long term persistence of these species. It emphasizes that ecological restoration is a complement to, not a substitute for conservation, and that the balance of effort and allocation of resources between them is a key issue.     

Genetic variability of the first-generation of Ribes sardoum,a threatened relic plant requiring translocation measures

The genetic variability of the ex situ cultivated plants of Ribes sardoum, obtained from seeds collected from the unique natural population, was investigated. Our results revealed that plants cultivated ex situ captured a higher amount of genetic diversity and this will be useful in future translocation of this threatened species.