Evolution of female sexuality in the maize ear (Zea mays L. subsp.mays—Gramineae)

The discovery of staminodes within the female inflorescences, or “ears,” of some Mexican maize races, and of feminized male inflorescences in annual Mexican teosinte, provides additional support for the theory that the ears of maize evolved from the male primary lateral branch tassels of teosinte by sexual transmutation, and that teosinte is the wild ancestor of maize.     

Embryo Rescue and Induction of Somatic Embryogenesis as a Method to Overcome Seed Inviability in Zea mays ssp. mays × ; Zea mays ssp. parviglumis Crosses

Zea mays ssp. mays (2n=40) and Z. mays ssp. parviglumis (2n=20) were crossed to obtain hybrid plants by embryo rescue. Hybrid embryos were isolated and cultured on García et al. (1992) basic medium supplemented with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and/or kinetin in different concentrations. Caryopses harvested 23 d after pollination (DAP) were turgid, with 0.3 to 0.5 mm long embryos, while those harvested 30 DAP were shrunken, with 1 to 1.5 mm long embryos. Twenty days after plating, 100 % of the younger embryos gave rise to white, compact embryogenic calli. Subsequently, coleoptiles, leaf-like structures, shoots and roots originated from them and 35 hybrid plants were regenerated from 60 embryos. Embryogenic or organogenic calli frequencies did not differ among hormonal treatments, but they decreased, on average, from 90.5 to 44.3 %, comparing 50 and 120-d-old cultures. The older embryos regenerated plants only by germination, although they gave rise to organogenic callus with low frequencies. Regenerated plants showed a somatic chromosome number of 2n=30, pollen fertility of 40 to 80 % and 15 % viable naked caryopses.     

Malate Dehydrogenase, Alcohol Dehydrogenase, and 6-Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase Isozymes of Zea mays L. × Tripsacum dactyloides L. Hybrids and Parents

Electrophoretic patterns of malate dehydrogenase (Mdh), alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh), and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (Pgd) of Zea mays L. × Tripsacum dactyloides L. hybrids and their parents were compared. The components of enzymes specific to T. dactyloides may be used as markers to identify the following T. dactyloides chromosomes in the hybrids: Tr 16 (Mdh 2 and Pdg 1), Tr 7, and/or Tr 13 (Adh 2). The isozymes of Mdh 2 are supposed as a possible biochemical marker to evaluate the introgression of genes, determining an apomictic mode of reproduction from T. dactyloides (localized on Tripsacum 16 chromosome) into Z. mays. The isozymes may be used as markers for the identification of maize chromosomes 1 and 6 in the hybrids as well. Chromosome count taken on the examined hybrids showed the addition of 9 to 13 chromosomes of T. dactyloides to maize chromosome complement.     

Two high-density AFLP® linkage maps of Zea mays L.: analysis of distribution of AFLP markers

This study demonstrates the relative ease of generating high-density linkage maps using the AFLP® technology. Two high-density AFLP linkage maps of Zea mays L. were generated based on: (1) a B73 × Mo17 recombinant inbred population and (2) a D32 × D145 immortalized F₂ population. Although AFLP technology is in essence a mono-allelic marker system, markers can be scored quantitatively and used to deduce zygosity. AFLP markers were generated using the enzyme combinations EcoRI/MseI and PstI/MseI. A total of 1539 and 1355 AFLP markers have been mapped in the two populations, respectively. Among the mapped PstI/MseIAFLP markers we have included fragments bounded by a methylated PstI site (^mAFLP markers). Mapping these ^mAFLP markers shows that the presence of C-methylation segregates in perfect accordance with the primary target sequence, leading to Mendelian inheritance. Simultaneous mapping of PstI/MseIAFLP and PstI/MseI ^mAFLP markers allowed us to identify a number of epi-alleles, showing allelic variation in the CpNpG methylation only. However, their frequency in maize is low. Map comparison shows that, despite some rearrangements, most of the AFLP markers that are common in both populations, map at similar positions. This would indicate that AFLP markers are predominantly single-locus markers. Changes in map order occur mainly in marker-dense regions. These marker-dense regions, representing clusters of mainly EcoRI/MseI AFLP and PstI/MseI ^mAFLP markers, co- localize well with the putative centromeric regions of the maize chromosomes. In contrast, PstI/MseImarkers are more uniformly distributed over the genome.     

Die Primärwurzel von Zea mays L.

Zusammenfassung An Gewächshauskulturen kann gezeigt werden, daß die Primärwurzel von Zea mays L. während der ganzen Lebensperiode der Pflanze perenniert. Da auch bei Phoenix dactylifera L. eine solche Tendenz zu erkennen ist, ist es wahrscheinlich, daß weitere Monocotylen diese Art der Bewurzelung zeigen. Es ließe sich daraus ein Maiswurzeltyp der heterogenen Radication bei den Monocotylen ableiten, bei dem primäres und sproßbürtiges Wurzelsystem dauernd nebeneinander bestehen.

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The primary root of Zea mays L.

Summary Until now it has been presumed that the primary root of Zea mays L. dies very soon after the formation of the seedling. On the basis of this presumption maize root-system development has been used as an example for monocotyledons (z.B. Troll, 1937; Rauh, 1950).After passing the seedling stage, monocotyledons are said to have shoot-born roots only. There are a few hints in the literature of exceptions to this principle known in the case of some palms (Falkenberg, 1876; Fitting, 1954; Kausch, unpublished). In this paper it is shown that the primary root of maize does not die off soon, but remains living during the entire vegetation period. Investigations were made within the greenhouse, where in the stage of flowering of the plants the primary root reached downwards into the soil as far as 1.60 m (see also Fig. 2). There are also some observations in the open field showing that here too the primary root remains living until the plant dies in autumn.Nevertheless Zea mays has sekundäre Homorhizie and heterogene Radication (Troll, 1949). However, there is surely a large group within the monocotyledons which is capable of keeping the primary root system along with shoot-born roots. Of this group it may be said that it is of the Mais-Wurzel-Typ.

     

Starch Mobilization in Ultradried Seed of Maize （Zea mays L.） During Germination

The effects of ultradry storage on the starch mobilization in maize (Zea mays L.) seed after aging were investigated. The results indicated that there were no significant differences in the content of ATP, starch, and soluble sugar, as well as the activity of amylase, between ultradried seeds and seeds stored at -20℃ during germination. These results were consistent with the higher level of vigor of the ultradried seed. Sieve tube introduction of a fluorescence dye (carboxyl fluoresceindiacetate) and laser confocal microscopy were used to study the development of plasmodesmata in the ultradried seeds. The results indicated that plasmodesmata developed well in ultradried seeds. Fluorescence analysis also showed that the fluorescence intensity in the radicle of ultradried seeds was stronger than that in seeds with a higher moisture content. This suggests that ultradry treatment has no adverse effects on the seeds. After seed imbibition, cell orgaelles could be resumed. It is concluded that ultradry seed storage is beneficial for maintaining seed vigor and that starchy mobilization proceeds regularly during germination.     

Location and Analysis of Introgressed Segments in the Parthenogenetic Progenies of Zea mays×Z.diploperennis by GISH

玉米×二倍体多年生类玉米孤雌后代渗入片段的GISH定位分析     

Histochemical localization of β-glycosidases in roots ofZea mays

Summary With 6-bromo-2-naphthyl--D-glucoside as substrate, -glucosidase activity has been histochemically localized in the lateral root meristems ofZea mays. Enzyme activity is highest in the epidermis and root cap of the young primordium. In contrast, enzyme activity is low in the parent root cortex, including the damaged areas around the lateral root. The results indicate that -glucosidase is involved in the development of the lateral root rather than its penetration through the cortex.     

Histochemical localization of β-glycosidases in roots ofZea mays

Summary A simultaneous coupling azo dye technique using 6-bromo-2-naphthyl-D-glucoside as substrate has been developed for the localization of-glucosidase in hand sections of plant root tissue. This technique is also applicable to-galactosidase localization. Using corn root hairs and epidermal cells as an experimental system, the localization obtained in simultaneous coupling has been compared with that obtained in the older post-coupling method, and in various control sections. It is concluded that the localization obtained in root hairs in the post-coupling method is an artifact produced by diffusion of the product before coupling to substantive non-enzymatic sites in the cytoplasm.     

Investigation of photosynthate-C allocation 27 days after 13C-pulse labeling of Zea mays L. at different growth stages

Aims

Pulse labeling of crops using ¹³C is often employed to trace photosynthesized carbon (C) within crop-soil systems. However, few studies have compared the C distribution for different labeling periods. The overall aim of this study was to determine the length of the monitoring interval required after ¹³C-pulse labeling to quantify photosynthate C allocation into plant, soil and rhizosphere respiration pools for the entire growing season of maize (Zea mays L.).

Methods

Pot grown maize was pulse-labeled with ¹³CO₂ (98 at.?%) at the beginning of emergence, elongation, heading and grainfilling growth stages. The routing of ¹³C into shoot and root biomass, soil CO₂ flux and soil organic carbon (SOC) pools was monitored for 27 days after ¹³C-pulse labeling at the beginning of each growth stage.

Results

The majority of the ¹³C was recovered after 27 d in the maize shoots, i.e., 57 %, 53 %, 70 % and 80 %, at the emergence, elongation, heading, and grainfilling stages, respectively. More ¹³C was recovered in the root biomass at elongation (27 %) compared to the least at the grainfilling stage (3 %). The amount recovered in the soil was the smallest pool of ¹³C at emergence (2.3 %), elongation (3.8 %), heading and grainfilling (less than 2 %). The amount of ¹³C recovered in rhizosphere respiration, i.e. ¹³CO₂, was greatest at emergence (26 %), and similar at the elongation, heading and grainfilling stages (~16 %).

Conclusions

At least 24 days is required to effectively monitor the recovery of ¹³C after pulse labeling with ¹³CO₂ for maize in plant and soil pools. The recovery of ¹³C differed between growth stages and corresponded to the changing metabolic requirements of the plant, which indicated labeling for the entire growth season would more accurately quantify the C budget in plant-soil system.     

Heterozygosity of Knob-Associated Tandem Repeats and Knob Instability in Mitotic Chromosomes of Zea （Zea mays L. and Z. diploperennis Iltis Doebley）

Knobs are blocks of heterochromatin present on chromosomes of maize （Zea mays L.） and its relatives that have effects on the frequency of genetic recombination, as well as on chromosome behavior. Knob heterozygosity and instability in six maize inbred lines and one Z. diploperennis Iltis Doebley line were investigated using the fluorescence in situ hybridization （FISH） technique with knob-associated tandem repeats （180 bp and 350 bp （TR- 1）） as probes. Signals of seven heterozygous knobs containing 180- bp repeats and of one heterozygous knob containing TR- 1 were captured in chromosomes of all materials tested according to the results of FISH, which demonstrates that the 180-bp repeat is the main contributor to knob heterozygosity compared with the TR- 1 element. In addition, one target cell with two TR- 1 signals on one homolog of chromosome 2L, which was different from the normal cells in the maize inbred line GB57, was observed, suggesting knob duplication and an instability phenomenon in the maize genome.     

Cytoplasmic free calcium in Riccia fluitans L. and Zea mays L.: Interaction of Ca2+ and pH?

In cells of Zea mays (root hairs, coleoptiles) and Riccia fluitans (rhizoids, thalli) intracellular Ca²⁺ and pH have been measured with double-barrelled microelectrodes. Free Ca²⁺ activities of 109–187 nM (Riccia rhizoids), 94–160 nM (Riccia thalli), 145–231 nM (Zea root hairs), 84–143 nM (Zea coleoptiles) were found, and therefore identified as cytoplasmic. In a few cases (Riccia rhizoids), free Ca²⁺ was in the lower millimolar range (2.3±0.8 mM). A change in external Ca²⁺ from 0.1 to 10 mM caused an initial and short transient increase in cytoplasmic free Ca²⁺ which finally levelled off at about 0.2 pCa unit below the control, whereas in the presence of cyanide the Ca²⁺ activity returned to the control level. It is suggested that this behaviour is indicative of active cellular Ca²⁺ regulation, and since it is energy-dependent, may involve a Ca²⁺-ATPase. Acidification of the cytoplasmic pH and alkalinization of the vacuolar pH lead to a simultaneous increase in cytoplasmic free Ca²⁺, while alkalinization of pH_c decreased the Ca²⁺ activity. Since this is true for such remote organisms as Riccia and Zea, it may be concluded that regulation of cytoplasmic pH and free Ca²⁺ are interrelated. It is further concluded that double-barrelled microelectrodes are useful tools for investigations of intracellular ion activities in plant cells.Symbols and abbreviations _m, _m membrane potential difference, changes thereof - PVC polyvinylchloride     

Plastid targeting of E. coli β-glucuronidase and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase in maize (Zea mays L.) cells

Summary Dicot and monocot chloroplast targeting peptides (CTPs) were evaluated for their effect on targeting, processing, and expression of two reporter proteins in maize cells. When tested transiently in maize leaf protoplasts, the maize ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase small subunit CTP required the inclusion of the amino terminus of mature small subunit protein to target -glucuronidase (GUS) to the plastid. To remove this amino terminal extension from GUS after import and processing, a repeat of the native processing site was inserted between the native mature protein and the reporter protein. This repeat processing site was used with less efficiency than the native site. Parallel constructs using the Arabidopsis thaliana small subunit and maize granule-bound starch synthase CTPs also localized GUS, but varied in repeat site use and GUS expression levels. Data from the CTP fusions with GUS were generally confirmed with fusions to an allosteric variant of E. coli ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase. Plastid targeting of this enzyme was required for starch enhancement of transgenic BMS cells.Abbreviations BMS maize Black Mexican Sweet suspension culture cells - CTP chloroplast targeting peptide - glgC16 an allosteric variant of E. coli ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase - GUS -glucuronidase - LUX luciferase - SDS-PAGE sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis - SSU small subunit of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase     

Does the lack of root hairs alter root system architecture of Zea mays?

Plant and Soil - Root hairs are one root trait among many which enables plants to adapt to environmental conditions. How different traits are coordinated and whether some are mutually exclusive is...     

Beiträge zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des sporogenen Gewebes der Gramineen und Cyperaceen. I.Zea mays

Zusammenfassung Auf Grund einer besonderen Zellteilngsfolge, die als mechanisch bedingt zu verstehen ist, ordnen sich die sporogenen Zellen beiZea mays so an, daß sie im Loculusquerschnitt wie die Sektoren eines Kreises um den Mittelpunkt herum liegen. Bei den folgenden Zellteilungen steht die Längsachse der Spindel den räumlichen Gegebenheiten entsprechend immer parallel, nie senkrecht, zur Antherenwand. Es erfolgen also keine Teilungen mehr in radialer Richtung, was im Zusammenwirken mit der Einstellung des Zellwachstums in antikliner Richtung bewirkt, daß die sporogenen Zellen im Zentrum des Antherenfaches auseinanderweichen und schließlich einen Hohlraum bilden.Die Pollenmutterzellen kleiden in einer Lage den Pollensack aus. Ihre Form ist ± stumpf-keilförmig, langgestreckt und die Längen ihrer drei Achsen verhalten sich ungefähr wie 321. Die längste Achse der Pollenmutterzellen und damit auch die Längsachse der Spindel der I. meiotischen Teilung steht immer parallel zur Antherenwand.Die Spindelanordnung der II. meiotischen Teilung erfolgt ebenfalls entsprechend den Raumverhältnissen. Die Spindeln stehen immer parallel zueinander, zur ersten Scheidewand und zur Antherenwand. Diese Art und Weise der Teilung führt dazu, daß die vier Zellen einer Tetrade sich in einer Ebene befinden und dem Tapetum anliegen. Auch nach der Isolierung der Mikrosporen wird diese Lage beibehalten.Die Auswirkung mechanischer Gesetzmäßigkeiten bei der Entwicklung des sporogenen Gewebes vonZea mays ist so stark, daß möglicherweise noch vorhandene andere Faktoren nur eine untergeordnete Rolle spielen.An dieser Stelle möchte ich Frau R.Wunderlich meinen besonderen Dank für mannigfache Beratung aussprechen.     

Enzyme des Stärkeumsatzes in den Wurzelhaubenzellen von Zea mays L.

Summary In connection with the problem of the well-known stability of statolith starch, some enzymes of starch metabolism have been investigated qualitatively in the root cap cells of Zea mays L. No activity of granule-bound UDPG- and ADPG-transglucosylase (EC 2.4.1.21) could be found. In the soluble enzyme fraction of the root cap cells, on the other hand, activities of phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.1), sucrose synthetase (EC 2.4.1.13), UDPG-pyrophosphorylase (EC 2.7.7.9), -Amylase (EC 3.2.11), Maltase (EC 3.2.1.20), and D-enzyme (EC 2.4.1.25) were clearly shown to be present. However, no measurable activities of ADPG-pyrophosphorylase, sucrose-6-phosphate-synthetase (EC 2.4.1.14) and UDPG-dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.22) could be found. It is concluded that the stability of statolith starch in the root cap cells is not caused by the lack of enzymes of starch metabolism, but perhaps by a dynamic equilibrium between the degradation and the synthesis of starch. The later could proceed by the activity of phosphorylase working in the direction of starch synthesis because of removal of the inorganic phosphate by phosphorylating mitochondria accumulating in the neighbourhood of the statolith amyloplasts.     

Interaction between NO 3 − and abscisic acid in the regulation of lateral root elongation in Zea mays L.

Lateral root (LR) elongation rate of 7–8-day maize seedlings depends on the availability of NO ₃ ^? , NO ₂ ^? , and abscisic acid (ABA) in an environment. Four-hour exposure to 0.01–1.5 mM NO ₂ ^? increases the relative LR elongation rate; in the case of NO ₂ ^? , the stimulation occurs only at an NO ₂ ^? concentration equal to 0.01 mM. Exogenous ABA (10^?6 M) inhibits the LR elongation process. In the case of a combined influence of NO ₃ ^? and ABA or NO ₂ ^? and ABA, the character of the response elongation reaction is different. The NO role in the regulation of LR elongation is discussed.     

Histochemical localization of β-glycosidases in roots ofZea mays II. Changes in localization and activity ofβ-glucosidase in the main root apex

Summary High-glucosidase activity has been demonstrated histochemically in the epidermis, and outer cortex of the root meristem, and in the peripheral cells along the flanks of the root cap. Low enzyme activity is found in the central part of the root cap and in the developing stele. Enzyme activity increases in cells just before they elongate and declines after elongation. The-glucosidase activity is located peripherally in the cells and usually occurs in the form of networks of strands and particles.     

In vitro pollination of maize (Zea mays L.) — Proof of double fertilization

Isolated ovules from the maize homozygous recessive brown midrib (bm₃) were in vitro pollinated by pollen carrying the dominant allele — and the purple embryo marker (PEM). The colour characters of the embryos and kernels corresponded to the results of control pollination and confirmed the process of double fertilization. The question whether the method is useful for obtaining haploids is discussed.