The <Emphasis Type="Italic">defH9-iaaM</Emphasis> auxin-synthesizing gene increases plant fecundity and fruit production in strawberry and raspberry

Background  

The DefH9-iaaM gene fusion which is expressed specifically in placenta/ovules and promotes auxin-synthesis confers parthenocarpic fruit development to eggplant, tomato and tobacco. Transgenic DefH9-iaaM eggplants and tomatoes show increased fruit production due mainly to an improved fruit set. However, the weight of the fruits is also frequently increased.     

Genetically modified parthenocarpic eggplants: improved fruit productivity under both greenhouse and open field cultivation.

Background  

Parthenocarpy, or fruit development in the absence of fertilization, has been genetically engineered in eggplant and in other horticultural species by using the DefH9-iaaM gene. The iaaM gene codes for tryptophan monoxygenase and confers auxin synthesis, while the DefH9 controlling regions drive expression of the gene specifically in the ovules and placenta. A previous greenhouse trial for winter production of genetically engineered (GM) parthenocarpic eggplants demonstrated a significant increase (an average of 33% increase) in fruit production concomitant with a reduction in cultivation costs.     

Hormonal regulation of fruit set, parthenogenesis induction and fruit expansion in Japanese pear

The effects of applied gibberellins (GAs), GA₁, GA₃, GA₄ and GA₇ with a cytokinin, N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N′-phenylurea (CPPU) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) on fruit set, parthenogenesis induction and fruit expansion of a number of Rosaceae species were assessed. These included Japanese pear cv. ‘Akibae’ (self-compatible) and cv. ‘Iwate yamanashi’ (a seedless cultivar). Other Rosaceae species (Pyrus communis, Chaenomeles sinensis, Cydonia oblonga, and Malus pumila) were also investigated. GA₄, GA₇ and CPPU are very effective in inducing parthenocarpic fruit growth, whereas GA₁, GA₃ and IAA, have no ability to induce parthenogenesis in Japanese pear. GA₄- and GA₇-induced parthenocarpic fruit tended to be smaller in size, higher in flesh hardness, and showed advanced fruit ripening in comparison to pollinated fruit and to parthenocarpic fruit induced by CPPU. GA₄- and GA₇-induced parthenocarpic fruit also had an increased pedicel length and fruit shape index and also showed a slight protrusion of the calyx end. CPPU, GA₄ and GA₇ alone or combination with uniconazole were also active in inducing parthenogenesis in three other Rosaceae species, although final fruit set was extremely low. GA₁ was essentially inactive in promoting fruit expansion unlike the other bioactive GAs, whose effectiveness in promoting fruit cell expansion was as follow: GA₄ ≈ GA₇ > GA₃ > GA₁.     

Parthenocarpy and seed predation by insects in Bursera morelensis

Background and Aims

While parthenocarpy (meaning the production of fruits without seeds) may limit fecundity in many plants, its function is not clear; it has been proposed, however, that it might be associated with a strategy to avoid seed predation. Bursera morelensis is a dioecious endemic plant that produces fruits with and without seeds, and its fruits are parasitized by insects. Its reproductive system is not well described and no published evidence of parthenocarpy exists for the species. The purpose of this work was to describe the breeding system of B. morelensis and its relationship to seed predation by insects.

Methods

The breeding system was described using pollination experiments, verifying the presence of parthenocarpic fruits and apomictic seeds. Reproductive structures from flower buds to mature fruits were quantified. For fruits, an anatomical and histological characterization was made. The number of fruits in which seeds had been predated by insects was correlated with parthenocarpic fruit production.

Key Results

The major abortion of reproductive structures occurred during fruit set. The results discard the formation of apomictic seeds. Flowers that were not pollinated formed parthenocarpic fruits and these could be distinguished during early developmental stages. In parthenocarpic fruits in the first stages of development, an unusual spread of internal walls of the ovary occurred invading the locule and preventing ovule development. Unlike fruits with seeds, parthenocarpic fruits do not have calcium oxalate crystals in the ovary wall. Both fruit types can be separated in the field at fruit maturity by the presence of dehiscence, complete in seeded and partial in parthenocarpic fruits. Trees with more parthenocarpic fruits had more parasitized fruits.

Conclusions

This is the first time the anatomy of parthenocarpic fruits in Burseraceae has been described. Parthenocarpic fruits in B. morelensis might function as a deceit strategy for insect seed predators as they are unprotected both chemically and mechanically by the absence of calcium oxalate crystals.Key words: Parthenocarpy, Bursera morelensis, predation, seeds, insects, breeding system, calcium oxalate crystals     

Bacterial community diversity and variation in spray water sources and the tomato fruit surface

Background  

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) consumption has been one of the most common causes of produce-associated salmonellosis in the United States. Contamination may originate from animal waste, insects, soil or water. Current guidelines for fresh tomato production recommend the use of potable water for applications coming in direct contact with the fruit, but due to high demand, water from other sources is frequently used. We sought to describe the overall bacterial diversity on the surface of tomato fruit and the effect of two different water sources (ground and surface water) when used for direct crop applications by generating a 454-pyrosequencing 16S rRNA dataset of these different environments. This study represents the first in depth characterization of bacterial communities in the tomato fruit surface and the water sources commonly used in commercial vegetable production.     

Role of gibberellins in parthenocarpic fruit development induced by the genetic system pat-3/pat-4 in tomato

The role of gibberellins (GAs) in the induction of parthenocarpic fruit-set and growth by the pat-3/pat-4 genetic system in tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) was investigated using wild type (WT; Cuarenteno) and a near-isogenic line derived from the German line RP75/59 (the source of pat-3/pat-4 parthenocarpy). Unpollinated WT ovaries degenerated but GA₃ application induced parthenocarpic fruit growth. On the contrary, parthenocarpic growth of pat-3/pat-4 fruits, which occurs in the absence of pollination and hormone treatment, was not affected by applied GA₃. Unpollinated pat-3/pat-4 fruit growth was negated by paclobutrazol, an inhibitor of ent -kaurene oxidase, and this inhibitory effect was negated by GA₃. The quantification of the main GAs of the early 13-hydroxylation pathway (GA₁, GA₈, GA₁₉, GA₂₀, GA₂₉ and GA₄₄) in unpollinated ovaries at 3 developmental stages (flower bud, FB; pre-anthesis, PR; and anthesis, AN), by gas chromatography-selected ion monitoring, showed that the concentration of most of them was higher in pat-3/pat-4 than in WT ovaries at PR and AN stages. The concentration of GA₁, suggested previously to be the active GA in tomate, was 2–4 times higher. Unpollinated pat-3/pat-4 ovaries at FB, PR and AN stages also contained relatively high amounts (5–12 ng g⁻¹) of GA₃, a GA found at less than 0.5 ng g⁻¹ in WT ovaries. It is concluded that the mutations pat-3/pat-4 may induce natural facultative parthenocarpy capacity in tomato by increasing the concentration of GA₁ and GA₃ in the ovaries before pollination.     

Tissue-specific organic acid metabolism in reproductive and non-reproductive parts of the fig fruit is partially induced by pollination

Organic acids are important components of overall fruit quality through flavor, taste, nutritional and medicinal values. Pollinated fig (Ficus carica L.) fruit quality is enhanced by increased acidity. We quantified the major organic acids and characterized the expression pattern of organic acid metabolic pathway-related genes in the reproductive part – inflorescence and non-reproductive part – receptacle of parthenocarpic and pollinated fig fruit during ripening. Essentially, pollinated fruit contains seeds in the inflorescence, as opposed to no seeds in the parthenocarpic inflorescence. The major organic acids – citrate and malate – were found in relatively high quantities in the inflorescence compared to the receptacle of both parthenocarpic and pollinated fig fruit. Notably, pollination increased citric acid content significantly in both inflorescence and receptacle. Genes related to the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle, citrate catabolism and glyoxylate cycle were identified in fig fruit. Expression levels of most of these genes were higher in inflorescences than in receptacles. In particular, FcPEPC and FcFUM (encoding fumarase) had significantly higher expression in the inflorescence of pollinated fruit. Most importantly, expression of the glyoxylate cycle genes FcMLS and FcICL (encoding malate synthase and isocitrate lyase, respectively) was induced to strikingly high levels in the inflorescence by pollination, and their expression level was highly positively correlated with the contents of all organic acids. Therefore, the glyoxylate cycle may be responsible for altering the accumulation of organic acids to upgrade the fruit taste during ripening, especially in the pollinated, seeded inflorescence.     

Cell division and cell enlargement in fruit of Lagenaria leucantha as influenced by pollination and plant growth substances

The effects of NAA (naphthaleneacetic acid), GA₃ (gibberellic acid), CPPU (N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N'-phenylurea) and pollination on fruit set, cell division and enlargement were studied in Lagenaria leucantha, an important vegetable. NAA and GA₃ were ineffective in inducing parthenocarpy, whereas CPPU induced parthenocarpic fruit significantly larger than fruit that resulted from pollination. Cell division, which occurred during the first 4 days after pollination was not reactivated by NAA or GA₃, but was effectively reactivated by CPPU. The cell number of the total cross-section of CPPU-treated fruit was 117.4% of that of pollinated fruit and 154.4% of that of unpollinated at 12 DAA (days after anthesis) respectively. The CPPU-induced parthenocarpic fruit had the largest cell cross-sectional area followed, successively, by pollinated fruit, NAA-treated fruit, GA₃-treated fruit and unpollinated fruit. These results indicate that CPPU induced parthenocarpic fruit growth by directly reactivating cell division and expansion.     

Parthenocarpic fruit development in tomato

Abstract: Parthenocarpic fruit development is a very attractive trait for growers and consumers. In tomato, three main sources of facultative parthenocarpy, pat, pat-2, pat-3/pat-4, are known to have potential applications in agriculture. The parthenocarpic fruit development in these lines is triggered by a deregulation of the hormonal balance in some specific tissues. Auxins and gibberellins are considered as the key elements in parthenocarpic fruit development of those lines. An increased level of these hormones in the ovary can substitute for pollination and trigger fruit development. This has opened up genetic engineering approaches for parthenocarpy that have given promising results, both in quality and quantity of seedless fruit production.     

Strong synergistic effects of gibberellins with the synthetic cytokinin N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea on parthenocarpic fruit set and some other fruit characteristics of apple

The induction of parthenocarpic fruit set was investigated using the apple cvs. Golden Delicious and Jonagold. The gibberellins GA₃, GA₄, GA₅ and GA₇ and the synthetic phenylurea-type cytokinin CPPU (N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea), were applied alone and in combination to unpollinated flowers at the end of petal fall. Gibberellins induced only a marginal final set of parthenocarpic fruits. CPPU sprays were more effective, particularly in the first year. When applied in combination, CPPU and gibberellins had a positive synergistic effect on parthenocarpic fruit set and fruit size, but a negative effect on flower induction the next year. After CPPU + GA sprays, percent fruit set was similar, or greater, compared to natural pollinated trees. The parthenocarpic fruits induced by CPPU + GA had an increased length to diameter ratio. CPPU stimulated, and GA₄ and GA₇ reduced, the russeting of the parthenocarpic fruits. The internal quality of the fruits was hardly affected, but Ca-deficiency symptoms occurred more frequently in parthenocarpic fruits.