Bt水稻秸秆还田对赤子爱胜蚓生长发育和生殖的影响

Bt蛋白能通过转Bt基因作物的秸秆还田进入土壤,进而可能会对土壤动物如蚯蚓的生长发育和生殖造成影响.为评估Bt水稻对赤子爱胜蚓的影响,本文模拟秸秆还田,在土壤中添加2.5%、5%、7.5%和10% Bt水稻(b2B138)及其同源水稻(安丰A)秸秆,分别在饲养赤子爱胜蚓7、15、30、45、60、75和90 d后观测蚯蚓的存活率、相对生长率和生殖情况,以及秸秆土壤混合物和蚯蚓体内的Cry1Ab蛋白含量.结果表明:较高还田量(7.5%和10%)Bt水稻秸秆处理对赤子爱胜蚓存活率有抑制作用;Bt水稻秸秆还田对赤子爱胜蚓的相对生长率没有不利影响;还田量为5%、7.5%和10%时,Bt水稻秸秆还田能促进蚯蚓的生殖.酶联免疫吸附测定法(ELISA)结果表明: 在Bt水稻土壤混合物中,蚯蚓体内均能检测到Cry1Ab蛋白,且前者随着时间延长而显著减少.因此,还田量为2.5%和5%时,Bt水稻秸秆还田释放的Cry1Ab蛋白对赤子爱胜蚓的生长发育和生殖没有不利影响.     

Human Health Risks of Selenium-Contaminated Fish: A Case Study for Risk Assessment of Essential Elements

A screening level human health risk assessment (HHRA) was applied to evaluate the human health implications of consuming selenium found in fish tissues collected downstream of coal mines in southeastern British Columbia, Canada. The study evaluated the potential for adverse human health effects associated with selenium, and considered known and potential benefits of selenium and fish ingestion. The results indicated that risks of selenosis due to consumption of selenium-contaminated fish in the region are negligible. Conclusions were strengthened by consideration of the potential benefits of selenium to human health, including: selenium essentiality for maintenance of good health; potential cancer prevention properties due to its role as an antioxidant; potential benefits for cardiovascular health; and other positive health benefits. The findings indicated that some aspects of the traditional framework for HHRA (e.g., application of safety factors to “err on the side of safety”) are inappropriate for the assessment of selenium-contaminated fish. Due to both deficiency and toxicity in the selenium dose-response relationship, application of compounding conservatism in risk assessment may lead to recommended intakes of fish that are contrary to the public health interest. The need for balancing risk types, for incorporating positive responses in risk assessments, and the linkage to the precautionary principle, are discussed.     

A Human Health Risk Assessment Software for Facilitating Management of Urban Contaminated Sites: A Case Study: The Massa Site,Tuscany, Italy

The goal of this article is to present the Human Health Risk Assessment (HRA) software developed as one of the NORISC ^{1 1}NORISC is the acronym of the project “Network Oriented Risk assessment by In-situ Screening of Contaminated sites” realized under under the 5th European Union Community Framework Programme for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration Activities. View all notes decision support software system components that could be used as a tool for facilitating management of urban contaminated sites. The NORISC-HRA software provides sufficient technical and procedural support to conduct a simple site-specific risk assessment. The employed HRA methodology is generally based on U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) procedures. The software determines the level and spatial distribution of human health risks at a given site and sets up site-specific preliminary Health-Based Remedial Goals (HBRGs)/Risk-Based Concentrations (RBCs) for soil and groundwater. The NORISC-HRA software is recommended for use when national soil and groundwater limit values are exceeded. Exposure pathways considered in this software are associated with three land use patterns—residential, industrial/commercial, and recreational. The aricle also presents the software testing results obtained at one of the NORISC test sites—the Massa site (Avenza-Carrara, Tuscany, Italy). Findings of the HRA indicated that the contaminated soil at the Massa test site might pose potential cancer and non-cancer risks to industrial workers in its present condition. Arsenic was the dominant substance responsible for most of the baseline risk and at the RBC of 1.77 mg/kg it was the primary driver of remedial decisions at the Massa site.     

A Preliminary Human Health Risk Assessment of Organochlorine Pesticide Residues Associated with Aquatic Organisms from the Rangsit Agricultural Area,Central Thailand

Food consumption is one of the main routes of human exposure to organochlorine pesticide residues (OCPRs). To assess the potential health risks associated with OCPRs contaminants due to freshwater organism consumption, a number of vegetables, prawn, snail, and fish were collected from Khlong 7 (canal), Rangsit agricultural area, Pathum-Thani Province, Thailand. The samples were extracted using a multiresidue extraction method and then analyzed by gas chromatography with microelectron capture detector (μ -ECD). The results show that low concentrations of OCPRs were detected in parts per billion (ppb) levels. Based on a plausible worst-case scenario, the local population could be at risk for cancer due to consumption of fish contaminated by α -, β -HCH, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, aldrin, dieldrin, DDD, DDE, and DDT. Likewise, individuals may be at risk from consumption of Lanchester's freshwater prawn Macrobrachium lanchesteri, freshwater snail Filopaludina mertensi, swamp morning-glory Ipomomea aquatica, neptunia Neptunia oleracea, and water lily Nymphaea lotus because these species all contained elevated concentrations of α -, β -HCH, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, aldrin, and dieldrin.     

Extrapolation in Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessments: Proceedings of a Symposium

A symposium was conducted in April 1998 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (NHEERL) to explore issues of extrapolation in human health and ecological risk assessments. Over the course of three and one half days, leading health and ecology experts presented and discussed research methods and approaches for extrapolating data among taxa and across levels of biological organization, through time, and across spatial scales. The intended result of this symposium was enhanced interaction among a diverse array of scientists, policymakers, and risk assessors to promote identification of approaches for reducing the uncertainties of extrapolation in risk assessment.     

Issues Related to Chemical Analysis,Data Reporting,and Use: Implications for Human Health Risk Assessment of PCBs and PBDEs in Fish Tissue

Recent reports in the scientific literature and the media, related to elevated levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diethyl ethers (PBDEs) in farmed and wild salmon have had significant impacts on public opinion and consumer behavior, influencing the sales of farmed salmon in North America and Europe. The assessment of contaminants in fatty fish, an important source of omega-3 fatty acids, is therefore an exercise in balancing risks and benefits. Human health risk assessors and risk managers will benefit from an understanding of the level of uncertainty that is integrated into all aspects of evaluating risk in this context. Significant variability exists in the way in which analyses are conducted, how data are reported, and how they are used in risk assessments. We conducted an analytical review of PCB and PBDE data in farmed and wild salmon, and identified critical issues having implications on human health risk assessment from fish consumption. These issues include: analytical methodologies used, quantification issues, reporting of QA/QC information, tissue sampling, nature of tissue analyzed, and laboratory competence. This article reviews and outlines these issues, discusses their implications for human health risk assessment, and recommends the consistent application of analytical fish tissue data in human health risk assessment.     

A Conceptual Framework for Evaluating the Interaction of a Chemical and Nonchemical Stressor in Human Health Risk Assessments: A Case Study for Lead and Psychosocial Stress

Recent research has demonstrated that nonchemical stressors may alter the toxicity from chemical exposures. This may have public health implications for low socioeconomic status (SES) communities that may be disproportionately exposed to toxic chemicals and various types of community and personal stressors. Nonchemical stressors may introduce an important source of variability that needs to be considered by risk assessors. Herein, we propose a framework for determining if a chemical–nonchemical interaction exists and, if so, options for incorporating interaction information into risk assessments. We use the increasingly recognized interaction between lead and psychosocial stress to illustrate the framework. We found that lead exposure occurs disproportionately in low SES groups that also tend to face high levels of psychosocial stress; that stress and lead both affect neurodevelopment and that this occurs via similar pathways involving the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. Further, several epidemiological and experimental studies have provided evidence for an interaction between lead and psychosocial stress. The implications of this interaction for risk assessment are also discussed.     

Human Health Risk Assessment of Soils Contaminated with Metal(loid)s by Using DGT Uptake: A Case Study of a Former Korean Metal Refinery Site

The human health risk of soils contaminated with As, Pb, Cu, and Zn was evaluated based on pseudo-total concentrations of metal(loid)s, the physiologically based extraction test (PBET), and diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT). Non-carcinogenic (NCR) and carcinogenic (CR) risks exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency criteria under both the residential and non-residential scenarios. Human bioavailable concentrations (PBET) were much lower than pseudo-total concentrations. The Hazardous Index of NCR (HI (NCR)) for the PBET in the studied soils was 67% and 94% less than that for pseudo-total concentration, respectively, under the non-residential and residential scenarios. Similarly, CR for the PBET was also 65% and 93% less for the two soils. The concentration of metal(loid)s accumulated in the DGT resin was highly correlated with the PBET-extractable concentration (R² > 0.649). Therefore, for both the CR and HI (NCR), the DGT-calculated risk was linearly related to the PBET-calculated risk for the studied soils under both scenarios. The results suggest that DGT uptake and PBET-extracted concentrations are good surrogates for risk estimation and that both J1 and J2 soils require remediation before their use for residential or non-residential purposes.     

Monte Carlo Simulation-Based Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Soil Pollution: A Case Study in the Qixia Mining Area,China

In recent years, heavy metal pollution accidents have occurred in many regions of China, and the public has become increasingly concerned about its health. Based on a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency model and using Monte Carlo simulation techniques, this article presents a procedure for health risk assessment of heavy metal pollution. A case study was conducted in the Qixia lead and zinc mining area. Based on the magnitude of heavy metal contamination in the mine factory, vicinal Qixia scenic site and village, the potential health risk calculated for a lifetime of exposure (through ingestion and dermal contact) was determined as the cumulative carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk for workers, tourists, and local residents (including children and adults), respectively. The risk assessment indicated that the carcinogenic risk is not significant. However, Pb poses a significant cumulative non-carcinogenic risk, which tends to be serious for workers. Additionally, local children are more vulnerable than adults to the risks associated with heavy metal contamination. Accordingly, risk alleviation and preventive measures should be taken, especially for children and workers.     

Safety,Health, and Environmental Risk Assessment of a Gas Power Plant: A Case Study from Southern Iran

This research was conducted to assess health, safety, and environmental risks of a gas power plant in southern Iran. In order to identify the subject risks of the power plant at operational phase a questionnaire was designed using the Delphi method. The questionnaires were put at the disposal of 99 electricity industry experts. Risk assessment was done using multicriteria decision-making methods such as technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS), entropy, and Eigenvector technique. Following prioritization of risks at each power plant unit, top-priority risks were determined by one-way ANOVA. The obtained results indicated that the risk of working with medium voltage boards with a weight of 0.879 at the power plant's Electricity Unit is the most important safety and health risk in the studied power plant while risk of servicing the unit with fuel of gas weighting 0.807 and delivery of gas fuel with weight of 0.630 in the Exploiting Unit and work on liquid fuel clutch with weight of 0.603 in the Mechanical Unit are the most important environmental risks in the gas power plant. In conclusion, this study concludes that health, safety, and environmental risk assessment can be a structured and used as a systematic approach to plan for environmental protection and personnel health.     

Bioaccumulation of Key Metals and Other Contaminants by Seaweeds from the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea Coast in Relation to Human Health Risk

This study examined the bioaccumulation of key metals and other contaminants (SO₄, F, Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Si, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni, Co, Cu, and Cd) by seaweeds from the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea coast and their risk to human health. Bioaccumulation factor calculations indicated that S, F, Na, K, Zn, Cu, and Cd had high seaweed uptake and this referred to the potential pollution of the coastal area. Multivariate analysis of the studied contaminants confirmed the bioaccumulation factor results as well as the physiological processes in seaweeds. Human health risk assessment of F, Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu, and Cd was conducted using hazard quotient (HQ) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) analyses. The carcinogenic assessment of sediments and ingestion of seaweeds using ILCR calculations revealed that Mn, Ni, and Cd in sediments and F and Zn in seaweeds require remedial action in order to reduce their human health risks. Additionally, HQ calculations for the contaminants in seaweeds and reference to toxicological references values from different agencies revealed that F and Co present high human health risk effects. Consequently, the potential public health risks from dietary exposure to hazardous contaminants in seaweeds must be continually subjected to research, regulation, and debate.     

A Novel Approach to Determining a Population-Level Threshold in Ecological Risk Assessment: A Case Study of Zinc

A novel approach to population-level assessment was applied in order to demonstrate its utility in estimating and managing the risk of zinc in a water environment. Much attention has been paid to population-level risk assessment, but there have been no attempts to determine a “safe” population-level concentration as an environmental criterion. Based on the published results of toxicity tests for various species, we first theoretically derived a threshold concentration at which a population size is unchanged due to the adverse effects of zinc exposure. To derive a zinc concentration that will protect populations in natural environments, we adopted the concept of species sensitivity distribution. Assuming the threshold concentrations of a set of species are log-normally distributed, we calculated the 95% protection level of zinc (PHC₅ :population-level hazardous concentration of 5% of species), which is 107 μg/L. Meanwhile, the 95% protection criterion (HC₅) based on conventional individual-level chronic toxicity, was calculated to be 14.6 μg/L. The environmentally “safe” concentration for a population-level endpoint is about 7 times greater than that for an individual-level endpoint. The proposed method provides guidance for a pragmatic approach to population-level ecological risk assessment and the management of chemicals.     

Application of GMOs in the U.S.: EPA research & regulatory considerations related to soil systems

During the last 20 years recombinant biotechnology has resulted in the development of organisms with unique genetic compositions, some of which are for intentional release to the environment. While concerns have been raised that such organisms may be capable of inducing transient unintended environmental effects, longer-term perturbations to soil processes and non-target species effects have yet to be demonstrated. In parallel with the growth of the commercial biotechnology industry has come a significant growth in regulatory review processes intended to evaluate the risks of these GMO products. Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), certain new microbial products that undergo pre-manufacture review are examined for human and environmental risks using data and other information received in accordance with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) “Points to Consider” guidance document. In the risk assessment process, carried out under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) authorities, EPA evaluates both microbial pesticide products and plants with pesticidal properties to determine if Federal safety standards are met. For all pesticide products, including genetically engineered pesticides, EPA receives testing of product composition and chemical properties, human health effects, environmental effects on non-target pests, and the fate of the pesticide in the environment. The EPA’s Office of Research and Development supports risk assessment research related to such GMO products. This paper focuses on relevant EPA research and regulatory examples related to soil effects considerations for GMOs.     

Integrated Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: A Case Study of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Humans and Wildlife

Since the mid-1900s, the global environment has become increasingly contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), including many with dioxin-like properties. These compounds generally have low water solubility, do not degrade readily in the environment, bioaccumulate in food chains, and have been linked to adverse health effects in both humans and wildlife. The presence of such compounds in terrestrial and aquatic food chains is relevant to those concerned with both human health and environmental protection because of the many common exposure pathways and biological effects among different species. In the past, some chemicals with health risks for humans have been identified following reports of adverse effects in wildlife. Integrating human and ecological risk assessments may improve society's ability to manage the design, manufacture, use and disposal of chemicals in a safe and efficient manner. This can be demonstrated with this case study, which summarizes approaches to evaluating the sources, transport and fate of certain POPs, used largely in the past, and their associated health risks to humans and biota.     

Integrated Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: A Case Study of Organophosphorous Pesticides in the Environment

This study was chosen as an example of integrated risk assessment because organophosphorous esters (OPs) share exposure characteristics for different species, including human beings and because a common mechanism of action can be identified. The “Framework for the integration of health and ecological risk assessment” is being tested against a deterministic integrated environmental health risk assessment for OPs used in a typical farming community. It is argued that the integrated approach helps both the risk manager and the risk assessor in formulating a more holistic approach toward the risk of the use of OP-esters. It avoids conclusions based on incomplete assessments or on separate assessments. The database available can be expanded and results can be expressed in a more coherent manner. In the integrated exposure assessment of OPs, the risk assessments for human beings and the environment share many communalities with regards to sources and emissions, distribution routes and exposure scenarios. The site of action of OPs, acetylcholinesterase, has been established in a vast array of species, including humans. It follows that in the integrated approach the effects assessment for various species will show communalities in reported effects and standard setting approaches. In the risk characterization, a common set of evidence, common criteria, and common interpretations of those criteria are used to determine the cause of human and ecological effects that co-occur or are apparently associated with exposure to OPs. Results of health and ecological risk assessments are presented in a common format that facilitates comparison of results. It avoids acceptable risk conclusions with regard to the environment, which are unacceptable with regard to human risk and vice versa. Risk managers will be prompted to a more balanced judgement and understanding and acceptance of risk reduction measures will be facilitated.     

Integrated Source Apportionment,Screening Risk Assessment,and Risk Mapping of Heavy Metals in Surface Sediments: A Case Study of the Dongting Lake,Middle China

Surface sediment samples were collected from 10 typical locations throughout the Dongting Lake, China, in January 2009. Samples were assayed by atom absorption spectrophotometer and cold atomic fluorescent spectrophotometer for Pb, Cd, As, Hg. In order to investigate the spatial distribution characteristics, sources, and potential ecological risks of heavy metals, the geostatistics method, potential ecological risk index, and multivariate statistical analysis were applied. The results showed that except for the content of Hg, the contents of Pb, Cd, and As had similar spatial distribution characteristics. The average contents of Cd and As exceeded the second class contents of the National Standard for Soil Environment Quality (GB15618-1995), especially that for Cd. The potential ecological risk posed by these heavy metals decreased in the order of the outlet of the Dongting Lake > the East Dongting Lake > the South Dongting Lake > the West Dongting Lake spatially. From the results of multivariate statistical analysis, Pb and Cd, as the first group, were considered to be rooted in mining smelting processes for developed mining and heavy industry. And Hg, as the second group, was mainly derived from parent material weathering, while As was probably considered to originate from both sources above.     

Personal Experience of Schizophrenia and the Role of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Danwei</Emphasis>: A Case Study in 1990s Beijing

Danwei as a cornerstone of Chinese urban society has received great research attention. The relationship between the Danwei and psychiatric patients, however, remains unclear. This article aims to shed light on the subject with an integrated micro–macro approach. It introduces a historical understanding of mental health in urban China under the “economic state in transition” framework. A detailed case study in clinical sociology is provided to reveal the many social factors affecting the experience of a schizophrenic patient and his significant others. A changing role of the Danwei is hypothesized and validated with qualitative data. The Danwei was shown to have changed significantly before the mid-1990s, yet it still played a major role in urban workers’ lives, including those of psychiatric patients, and even more so in people’s expectations. This lends support to the need for a more responsive public policy to address various social issues brought about by economic reform, with the learning of worldwide experiences including “community care,” “social support” and “social rehabilitation.” Implications for social research, policymaking and professional practice are discussed.

Hydrodynamics-Based Transfer of Human Apolipoprotein A-I Gene to Mice: Study of Factors Affecting the Efficiency and Duration of Gene Expression in the Mouse Liver

Human apolipoprotein A-I gene (apoA-I) inserted into a plasmid expression vector was transferred in vivo into C57Bl/6 mice using hydrodynamic injections into the tail vein. Two types of plasmid expression vectors were used: (1) pCMVcapoAI which contained cDNA of apoA-I driven by the human cytomegalovirus (CMV) early gene promoter and (2) pAlg, which contained a genomic locus of intron-containing apoA-I driven by its own extended 5-regulatory region (APOAI). Hydrodynamic intravenous injections of both expression vectors led to the appearance of human apoA-I mRNA in the liver and human ApoA-I protein in the serum of injected mice. The dynamics of human ApoA-I content in the sera of mice injected with pCMVcapoAI and pAlg were different. When pCMVcapoAI was used, the concentration of human ApoA-I in mouse serum was maximal one day after injection and decreased to zero within the next two weeks. In the case of pAlg, the content of human ApoA-I in serum was maximal (up to 20 g/ml) on days 5–7 after injection and then gradually decreased for several months (six months after injection, for example, it decreased to 25% of the maximal value). Experiments on saved pAlg plasmid isolated from the nuclei of hepatocytes 50 days after injection showed that the plasmid was retained for a long time in the form of an episome. A significant content of human ApoA-I in serum and its long-term persistence after injecting mice with pAlg may be accounted for by the properties of APOAI and/or the exon–intron structure of the apoA-I gene. Injecting mice with different variants of APOAI coupled with the luciferase gene did not lead to long-term expression of luciferase in the liver. It is concluded that the presence of introns in the apoA-I gene is required for its efficient and long-term expression after transfer to mice by means of hydrodynamic injections.     

The Origin and Genetic Status of Insular Caprines in the Eastern Mediterranean: A Case Study of Free-Ranging Goats (Capra aegagrus cretica) on Crete

The history and species status of free-ranging goats inhabiting the Eastern Mediterranean islands is discussed with reference to morphometric, archaeological and genetic findings. A case study on the free-ranging goats on Crete (Capra aegagrus cretica) is presented. The phenotype of the Cretan goat resembles that of the wild bezoar goat (C. aegagrus). However, the mitochondrial DNA of cytochrome b and d-loop sequences shows affinity with domestic goats. It has been suggested that the Cretan goat represents a feral animal that was introduced onto the island during the 6th millennium b.c. as a primitive domestic, and has retained the wild morphotype but has undergone significant genetic change. An alternative explanation, and the one that is proposed here, is that the goat was introduced onto the island in wild form and released as a food source. Subsequent introgressions with domestic animals, especially ewes, have influenced its genotype. These conclusions are applicable to other free-living goats and sheep which inhabit islands in the Eastern Mediterranean.     

Case studies on the use of biotechnologies and on biosafety provisions in four African countries

This review is based on a study commissioned by the European Commission on the evaluation of scientific, technical and institutional challenges, priorities and bottlenecks for biotechnologies and regional harmonisation of biosafety in Africa. Biotechnology was considered within four domains: agricultural biotechnologies (‘Green’), industrial biotechnologies and biotechnologies for environmental remediation (‘White’), biotechnologies in aquaculture (‘Blue’) and biotechnologies for healthcare (‘Red’). An important consideration was the decline in partnerships between the EU and developing countries because of the original public antipathy to some green biotechnologies, particularly genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and food from GM crops in Europe. The study focus reported here was West Africa (Ghana, Senegal, Mali and Burkina Faso).The overall conclusion was that whereas high-quality research was proceeding in the countries visited, funding is not sustained and there is little evidence of practical application of biotechnology and benefit to farmers and the wider community. Research and development that was being carried out on genetically modified crop varieties was concentrating on improving food security and therefore unlikely to have significant impact on EU markets and consumers. However, there is much non-controversial green biotechnology such as molecular diagnostics for plant and animal disease and marker-assisted selection for breeding that has great potential application. Regarding white biotechnology, it is currently occupying only a very small industrial niche in West Africa, basically in the sole sector of the production of liquid biofuels (i.e., bio-ethanol) from indigenous and locally planted biomass (very often non-food crops). The presence of diffused small-scale fish production is the basis to develop and apply new (Blue) aquaculture technologies and, where the research conditions and the production sector can permit, to increase this type of production and the economy of this depressed areas. However, the problems bound to environmental protection must not be forgotten; priority should be given to monitor the risks of introduction of foreign species. Red biotechnologies potentially bring a vast domain of powerful tools and processes to achieve better human health, most notably improved diagnostics by molecular techniques, better targeting of pathogens and a better knowledge of their sensitivities to drugs to permit better treatment.Biosafety regulatory frameworks had been initiated in several countries, starting with primary biosafety law. However, disparate attitudes to the purpose of biosafety regulation (e.g., fostering informed decision-making versus ‘giving the green-light for a flood of GMOs’) currently prevent a needed consensus for sub-regional harmonisation. To date, most R&D funding has come from North America with some commercial interests from Asia, but African biotechnology workers expressed strong desire for (re-)engagement with interested parties from the European Union. Although in some of the visited countries there are very well qualified personnel in molecular biology and biosafety/regulation, the main message received is that human resources and capacity building in-house are still needed. This could be achieved through home-based courses and capacity-building including funds for post-degree research to motivate and retain trained staff.