Real-time PCR investigation of potential vectors, reservoirs, and shedding patterns of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas

Three hemotropic mycoplasmas have been identified in pet cats: Mycoplasma haemofelis, "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum," and "Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis." The way in which these agents are transmitted is largely unknown. Thus, this study aimed to investigate fleas, ticks, and rodents as well as saliva and feces from infected cats for the presence of hemotropic mycoplasmas, to gain insight into potential transmission routes for these agents. DNA was extracted from arthropods and from rodent blood or tissue samples from Switzerland and from salivary and fecal swabs from two experimentally infected and six naturally infected cats. All samples were analyzed with real-time PCR, and some positive samples were confirmed by sequencing. Feline hemotropic mycoplasmas were detected in cat fleas and in a few Ixodes sp. and Rhipicephalus sp. ticks collected from animals but not in ticks collected from vegetation or from rodent samples, although the latter were frequently Mycoplasma coccoides PCR positive. When shedding patterns of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas were investigated, "Ca. Mycoplasma turicensis" DNA was detected in saliva and feces at the early but not at the late phase of infection. M. haemofelis and "Ca. Mycoplasma haemominutum" DNA was not amplified from saliva and feces of naturally infected cats, despite high hemotropic mycoplasma blood loads. Our results suggest that besides an ostensibly indirect transmission by fleas, direct transmission through saliva and feces at the early phase of infection could play a role in the epizootiology of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas. Neither the investigated tick nor the rodent population seems to represent a major reservoir for feline hemotropic mycoplasmas in Switzerland.     

Real-Time PCR Investigation of Potential Vectors, Reservoirs, and Shedding Patterns of Feline Hemotropic Mycoplasmas

Three hemotropic mycoplasmas have been identified in pet cats: Mycoplasma haemofelis, “Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum,” and “Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis.” The way in which these agents are transmitted is largely unknown. Thus, this study aimed to investigate fleas, ticks, and rodents as well as saliva and feces from infected cats for the presence of hemotropic mycoplasmas, to gain insight into potential transmission routes for these agents. DNA was extracted from arthropods and from rodent blood or tissue samples from Switzerland and from salivary and fecal swabs from two experimentally infected and six naturally infected cats. All samples were analyzed with real-time PCR, and some positive samples were confirmed by sequencing. Feline hemotropic mycoplasmas were detected in cat fleas and in a few Ixodes sp. and Rhipicephalus sp. ticks collected from animals but not in ticks collected from vegetation or from rodent samples, although the latter were frequently Mycoplasma coccoides PCR positive. When shedding patterns of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas were investigated, “Ca. Mycoplasma turicensis” DNA was detected in saliva and feces at the early but not at the late phase of infection. M. haemofelis and “Ca. Mycoplasma haemominutum” DNA was not amplified from saliva and feces of naturally infected cats, despite high hemotropic mycoplasma blood loads. Our results suggest that besides an ostensibly indirect transmission by fleas, direct transmission through saliva and feces at the early phase of infection could play a role in the epizootiology of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas. Neither the investigated tick nor the rodent population seems to represent a major reservoir for feline hemotropic mycoplasmas in Switzerland.     

Complete genome sequence of Mycoplasma haemofelis, a hemotropic mycoplasma

Here, we present the genome sequence of Mycoplasma haemofelis strain Langford 1, representing the first hemotropic mycoplasma (hemoplasma) species to be completely sequenced and annotated. Originally isolated from a cat with hemolytic anemia, this strain induces severe hemolytic anemia when inoculated into specific-pathogen-free-derived cats. The genome sequence has provided insights into the biology of this uncultivatable hemoplasma and has identified potential molecular mechanisms underlying its pathogenicity.     

Trypanosoma evansi: Hematologic changes in experimentally infected cats

This study aimed at evaluating hemogram and erythropoietic changes in cats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Thirteen adult female non-breeding Felix catus were separated into two groups: seven animals were infected with 10⁸ trypomastigotes each, and six animals were used as negative controls. Animals were kept in air-conditioned rooms and blood smears were performed daily for 49 days. Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein at days 0, 7, 21, 35 and 49 and stored in blood-collecting tubes containing anticoagulant. Bone marrow was collected from the proximal epiphysis of the right femur at days 14 and 42 post-inoculation (PI). Total erythrocyte count, hematocrit and hemoglobin showed statistical differences among groups from the seventh day PI onwards (P < 0.05). The mean corpuscular volume and the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration remained normal, characterizing a normocytic-normochromic anemia. Reticulocyte count increased in the infected group from the 21st day onwards, but remained near normal values suggesting a mild regenerative anemia. Moreover, the myeloid:erythroid ratio significantly reduced at day 42 PI, evidencing a bone marrow hematopoietic response. Based on these results we conclude that cats infected with T. evansi have normocytic, normochromic, regenerative anemia.     

Hematological and biochemical investigations on the effect of vitamin E and C on Oreochromis niloticus exposed to zinc oxide nanoparticles

This study was carried out to determine the LC₅₀ of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) on Oreochromis niloticus and to investigate the effect of vitamin E and C on hematological and biochemical alterations induced by two sublethal concentrations (1 and 2 mg/L) of ZnONPs. One hundred and eighty fish were used for studying the lethal concentrations of ZnONPs. For sublethal study two hundred and twenty-five males of O. niloticus were equally divided into five groups, control, the second and the third were treated with 1 and 2 mg/L ZnONPs respectively. The fourth and fifth were exposed to the same concentrations of ZnONPs plus vitamins E and C. The results revealed that the 96 h LC₅₀ of ZnONPs was 3.1 ± 0.4 mg/L. The sublethal study revealed the presence of normocytic normochromic anemia in groups (2, 3 and 5) along the experiment period. The 4th group showed normocytic normochromic anemia at the 7th day and microcytic hypochromic anemia at the 15th day. Leukocytosis, heterophilia, lymphopenia and monocytopenia were recorded at the 7th day in all treated groups compared with the normal control. At the 15th day heteropenia, lymphopenia and monocytopenia were reported in all treated groups. A significant increase in the serum levels of alkaline phosphatase, aminotransferases, urea, creatinine and erythrocytic nuclear and morphological abnormalities along the experimental periods in all treated groups compared with the normal control. Serum total protein and albumin levels were significantly decreased at the same period in the same groups. Addition of vitamin E and C to the diet (groups 4 and 5) significantly improved all measured parameters compared with groups (2 and 3) which treated with ZnONPs only.     

Mycoplasmosis in wildlife: a review

Mycoplasma, the smallest self-replicating life-forms, are responsible for a variety of diseases in humans, domestic animals, insects, and plants. Although the exact role of these organisms in wildlife is not available, now it is increasingly recognized that mycoplasmosis is an emerging disease in many wildlife populations. As only scattered data regarding these are available, an attempt has been made to assemble the available literature. To our knowledge, this is the first review paper regarding mycoplasmosis in wildlife. The outbreaks of mycoplasmoses such as contagious pleuropneumonia (CCPP), infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae and Mycoplasma capricolum subspp. capricolum infections, and contagious agalactia in wild ruminants; mycoplasmosis in raccoons; upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) and Mycoplasma crocodyli and Mycoplasma alligatoris infections in wild reptiles; and house finch conjunctivitis are showing that the prevalence of mycoplasmosis in wildlife has reached an alarming level, thus raising concerns for the conservation of many endangered species in captivity and free-ranging populations. These also emphasize the urgent need for increased surveillance and control of mycoplasma in wildlife. Some control approaches that can be followed are prevention of the spillover from domestic livestock and birds, proper quarantine of newly received animals along with mycoplasma screening, isolation of affected and suspected animals, screening of mycoplasmoses before the release of captive animals into free-ranging population, etc. At the same time, the previous dogma that mycoplasma have strict host specificity should be reconsidered in the light of new findings.     

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Household Cats in Korea and Risk Factors

Several epidemiological surveys have reported the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in stray cats in Korea, but little information is available on T. gondii infection in household cats. The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence and risk factors of T. gondii infection among household cats reared in Seoul, Korea. A total of 474 blood samples were collected from clinically healthy household cats. All samples were tested using ELISA and PCR. The risk factor analysis was based on a questionnaire filled out by the owners. The overall positive rate for ELISA and PCR assays was 2.2% (10/437) and 2.1% (10/474), respectively. With regard to the origin of cats, the positive rates among cats adopted from the animal shelter and veterinary clinic for stray cats were significantly different (P<0.05). Our study demonstrated that the positive rate of T. gondii infection in household cats was low and that this low prevalence was assumed to be associated with keeping the cats indoors and restriction of eating raw food and uncooked meat. Therefore, we suggest that the owners check the origin of the cats prior to adoption to prevent infection of other animals, including humans.     

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Stray and Household Cats in Regions of Seoul, Korea

The principal objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of toxoplasmosis in household and stray cats in Seoul, Republic of Korea. We collected blood samples from 72 stray and 80 household cats, and all samples were examined by ELISA and nested PCR. The overall positive rates of Toxoplasma gondii in stray cats were 38.9% (28/72), with 15.3% (11/72) in ELISA and 30.6% (22/72) in PCR. The positive rate in male stray cats was slightly higher than that of female stray cats. The highest positive rate of T. gondii infection was noted in Gangnam and Songpa populations in ELISA and in Gwangjin population in PCR. In household cats, however, we could not detect any specific antibodies or DNA for T. gondii. In conclusion, we recognized that the infection rate of toxoplasmosis in stray cats in Seoul was considerably high but household cats were free from infection.     

Zoonotic Intestinal Trematodes in Stray Cats (Felis catus) from Riverside Areas of the Republic of Korea

The present study was performed to survey the infection status of zoonotic intestinal trematode (ZIT) in stray cats from 5 major riverside areas in the Republic of Korea. Total 400 stray cats were captured with live-traps in riverside areas of Seomjingang (‘gang’ means river) (203 cats) from June to October 2010, and of Yeongsangang (41), Nakdonggang (57), Geumgang (38), and Hangang (61 cats) from June to October 2011, respectively. Small intestines resected from cats were opened with a pair of scissors in a beaker with 0.85% saline and examined with naked eyes and under a stereomicroscope. More than 16 ZIT species were detected in 188 (92.6%) cats from Seomjingang areas, and the number of worms recovered was 111 per cat infected. In cats from riverside areas of Yeongsangang, Nakdonggang, Geumgang, and Hangang, more than 9, 8, 3, and 5 ZIT species were recovered, and the worm burdens were 13, 42, 11, and 56 specimens per infected cat, respectively. As the members of family Heterophyidae, more than 10 species, i.e., Metagonimus spp., Pygidiopsis summa, Heterophyes nocens, Stellantchasmus falcatus, Heterophyopsis continua, Acanthotrema felis, Centrocestus armatus, Procerovum varium, Cryptocotyle concava, and Stictodora lari, were recovered. More than 5 species of echinostomes, i.e., Echinostoma hortense, Echinochasmus japonicus, Echinochasmus sp., Echinoparyphium sp., and unidentified larval echinostomes, were collected. Plagiorchis spp. were detected in cats from areas of Seomjin-gang and Yeongsangang. From the above results, it has been confirmed that stray cats in 5 major riverside areas of Korea are highly infected with various species of ZITs.     

An Imported Case of Severe Falciparum Malaria with Prolonged Hemolytic Anemia Clinically Mimicking a Coinfection with Babesiosis

While imported falciparum malaria has been increasingly reported in recent years in Korea, clinicians have difficulties in making a clinical diagnosis as well as in having accessibility to effective anti-malarial agents. Here we describe an unusual case of imported falciparum malaria with severe hemolytic anemia lasting over 2 weeks, clinically mimicking a coinfection with babesiosis. A 48-year old Korean man was diagnosed with severe falciparum malaria in France after traveling to the Republic of Benin, West Africa. He received a 1-day course of intravenous artesunate and a 7-day course of Malarone (atovaquone/proguanil) with supportive hemodialysis. Coming back to Korea 5 days after discharge, he was readmitted due to recurrent fever, and further treated with Malarone for 3 days. Both the peripheral blood smears and PCR test were positive for Plasmodium falciparum. However, he had prolonged severe hemolytic anemia (Hb 5.6 g/dl). Therefore, 10 days after the hospitalization, Babesia was considered to be potentially coinfected. A 7-day course of Malarone and azithromycin was empirically started. He became afebrile within 3 days of this babesiosis treatment, and hemolytic anemia profiles began to improve at the completion of the treatment. He has remained stable since his discharge. Unexpectedly, the PCR assays failed to detect DNA of Babesia spp. from blood. In addition, during the retrospective review of the case, the artesunate-induced delayed hemolytic anemia was considered as an alternative cause of the unexplained hemolytic anemia.     

Molecular survey of haemoplasmas in shelter dogs and associations with Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato

This study aimed to assess the occurrence of canine haemoplasma infection in domestic dogs and its possible trans‐stadial transmission by Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (Ixodida: Ixodidae) in shelter dogs in Diyarbak?r Province in southeast Turkey. Blood samples (n = 282) collected from domestic dogs were analysed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of canine haemoplasma. Fully engorged nymphs (n = 204) were removed from dogs that were positive for canine haemoplasma by PCR and maintained in an incubator at 28 °C for moulting. Unfed ticks (n = 2185) comprising 2100 nymphs and 85 adults collected from the grounds of the same shelter were also screened. Of 282 dogs, 108 [38.3%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 32.6–44.2] were PCR‐positive for canine haemoplasmas. Mycoplasma haemocanis (Mhc) infection (26.2%, 95% CI 21.2–31.8) was observed in a significantly higher number of dogs than was Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (CMhp) infection (6.7%, 95% CI 4.1–10.3). Co‐infections were seen in 15 (5.3%, 95% CI 3.0–8.6) dogs. None of the tick specimens examined were found to be positive for haemoplasma. Partial sequences of the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene shared 99–100% identity with the corresponding published sequences for Mhc and CMhp. The present results revealed no trans‐stadial transmission of canine haemoplasma species by R. sanguineus s.l. in field conditions.     

Trypanosoma brucei: attenuation by cortcosteroids of the anemia of infected mice

BALBc/J mice infected with pleomorphic stabilate of Trypanosoma brucei develop a severe anemia. The anemia is initially normoblastic and normocytic but becomes macrocytic due to brisk and sustained reticulocytosis. Red blood cells from uninfected animals are destroyed when transfused into infected animals. Neither extensive intravascular hemolysis nor red cell agglutinins were detected in infected animals, but spherocytes were common in the peripheral circulation. Treatment of mice with either dexamethasone or hydrocortisone greatly retarded the development of the anemia. Comparison of the course of infection in these treated mice to that in normal mice suggests that these corticosteroids attenuate the anemia through their immunosuppressive action.     

Toxoplasma gondii B1 Gene Detection in Feces of Stray Cats around Seoul,Korea and Genotype Analysis of Two Laboratory-Passaged Isolates

The increasing prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in the human population in the Republic of Korea (= Korea) is due to various reasons such as an increase in meat consumption. However, the importance of cats in transmitting T. gondii infection through oocysts to humans has seldom been assessed. A total of 300 fecal samples of stray cats captured around Seoul from June to August 2013 were examined for T. gondii B1 gene (indicating the presence of oocysts) using nested-PCR. Fourteen (4.7%) of 300 cats examined were positive for B1 gene. Female cats (7.5%) showed a higher prevalence than male cats (1.4%). Cats younger than 3 months (5.5%) showed a higher prevalence than cats (1.5%) older than 3 months. For laboratory passage of the positive samples, the fecal suspension (0.2 ml) of B1 gene positive cats was orally inoculated into experimental mice. Brain tissues of the mice were obtained after 40 days and examined for the presence of tissue cysts. Two isolates were successfully passaged (designated KNIH-1 and KNIH-2) and were molecularly analyzed using the SAG5D and SAG5E gene sequences. The SAG5D and SAG5E gene sequences showed high homologies with the ME49 strain (less virulent strain). The results indicated the importance of stray cats in transmitting T. gondii to humans in Korea, as revealed by detection of B1 gene in fecal samples. T. gondii isolates from cats were successfully passaged in the laboratory for the first time in Korea.     

Genotype of Toxoplasma gondii from Blood of Stray Cats in Gyeonggi-do, Korea

Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii has been performed in 23 PCR positive blood samples from stray cats in Korea. We used 2 separate PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns of SAG2 gene, amplifying the 5''and 3''ends of the locus. The results revealed that all samples belonged to the type I clonal lineage. Although T. gondii organisms were not isolated from the samples, the results of the present study represent that stray cats with T. gondii infection should be seriously concerned in our environment. Adequate and continuous control programs of stray cats are needed to reduce the risk of transmission of T. gondii as a zoonotic infection threatening the public health.     

Caprine mycoplasmal mastitis in Nigeria

In a study to investigate the current status of intramammary mycoplasmosis in caprine udders in Nigeria, a total of 57 and 24 milk samples were collected from udders of goats affected by mastitis and from apparently normal goats’ udders, respectively. Acute and chronic mastitis were more commonly observed in goats between 1 and 3 years old. Mycoplasma agalactiae and Mycoplasma capricolum occurred at a significantly higher rate (p<0.05) in udders affected by mastitis than in normal healthy udders. Other mycoplasma occurring in low prevalence include Mycoplasma bovis and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides LC. It is concluded that cultural (microbiological) surveillance is necessary for effective treatment and control of the disease in Nigeria.     

Prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis Infection in Stray Cats by Nested PCR in Korea

The purpose of this study was to conduct a survey of Dirofilaria immitis infection among stray cats in Korea using nested PCR. We included 235 stray cats (121 females and 114 males) and evaluated each for the presence of feline heartworm infection. Blood samples were collected from 135 cats in Daejeon, 50 cats in Seoul, and 50 cats from Gyeonggi-do (Province). Of the 235 DNA samples, 14 (6.0%) were positive for D. immitis. The prevalence of infection in male cats (8/114, 7.0%) tended to be higher than that in female cats (6/121, 5.0%), but the difference was not statistically significant. In each location, 8, 2, and 4 cats were positive for infection, respectively, based on DNA testing. No significant differences in the prevalence were observed among the geographic regions, although the rate of infection was higher in Gyeonggi-do (8.0%) than Daejeon (5.9%) and Seoul (4.0%). We submitted 7 of the 14 D. immitis DNA-positive samples for sequencing analysis. All samples corresponded to partial D. immitis cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene sequences with 99% homology to the D. immitis sequence deposited in GenBank (accession no. {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"FN391553","term_id":"295980069","term_text":"FN391553"}}FN391553). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first survey using nested PCR to analyze the prevalence of D. immitis in stray cats in Korea.     

Transmission of Cytauxzoon felis by injection of Amblyomma americanum salivary glands

BackgroundCytauxzoonosis is a life-threatening disease of cats, caused by the tick-borne piroplasmid hemoparasite, Cytauxzoon felis. Current experimental models for cytauxzoonosis rely on either tick transmission or direct injection of infected cat tissues. These models require researchers to directly work with infected ticks or use cats with acute cytauxzoonosis. To improve the feasibility and accessibility, there is a need to establish sharable resources among researchers. In related piroplasmid parasites, sporozoite-based inoculums are routinely produced from tick salivary glands, cryopreserved and distributed to other investigators and facilities. For these parasites, sporozoites have been the basis for vaccine development and in vitro cultivation, both of which remain lacking for C. felis research. If infectious sporozoites can be similarly isolated for C. felis, it would significantly broaden our capabilities to study this parasite. Aims of this study was to determine if C. felis sporozoites inoculums collected from the salivary glands of Amblyomma americanum ticks were capable of inducing cytauxzoonosis in naïve cats.Materials and methodsA. americanum nymphs were acquisition-fed on a donor cat chronically infected with C. felis and allowed to molt to adults. Four groups of adult ticks (n = 50/group) were either stimulation-fed for 4 days on naïve cats or were heated at 37 °C for 4 days. After these treatments, salivary glands (SG) of each group of ticks were collected to create inoculums. Infectivity of these inoculums was then tested by subcutaneous injection into naïve cats.ResultsThe two naïve cats used for stimulation feeding and as controls both developed cytauxzoonosis, indicating these groups of ticks were capable of producing infectious sporozoites. Of the 2 cats that were injected with SGs from the stimulation-fed ticks, one cat developed cytauxzoonosis and C. felis infection was confirmed by both light microscopy and PCR. The other cat did not develop cytauxzoonosis and only had equivocal evidence of infection. Neither cat injected with SGs from the heated ticks developed cytauxzoonosis. One of these cats had equivocal evidence of infection and one had no evidence of infection.ConclusionThis study validates the feasibility of collecting infectious sporozoites from C. felis-infected ticks that can be used to infect naïve cats. While this model requires further optimization, it has the potential to expand resources to study C. felis and further advance research in this field.     

Feline panleukopenia viral infection in cats: Application of some molecular methods used for its diagnosis

Forty diseased cats and seven healthy control cats from different sex, ages and breeds had examined clinically to confirm presence or absence of clinical symptoms of Feline panleukopenia disease (FP). Several tools including ELISA, gene expression analysis (qRT-PCR), DNA fragmentation test and apoptosis assay were conducted to determine the Feline panleukopenia disease in cat tissues. Clinical symptoms in the form of depression, fever, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, anaemia and leucopenia were recorded in the diseased cats while no clinical sings were observed in control healthy cats. ELISA results showed that all of diseased (n?=?40) cats were positive while control cats (n?=?7) were negative for FP viral antigen. After carrying out of ELISA assay, supportive treatment trials including fluid therapy, immunostimulant, antibiotics to overcome dehydration, restoring electrolytes imbalances, combating secondary bacterial infection were conducted but all diseased cats were died and control cats exposed to soft death. Gene expression analysis detected high levels of FP viral gene in several cat tissues in which ilium exhibited high viral expression levels compared with jejunum. Also, viral expression levels in jejunum were higher than in mesenteric lymph nodes. In addition, viral expression levels were not detected in tissues of control cats. The results of the DNA fragmentation assay observed that DNA extracted from different tissues of infected cats exhibited damaged DNA bands as compared with DNA of control cats. DNA fragmentation rates in infected tissues increased significantly (P?<?0.01), the highest rates were showed in ilium and jejunum tissue than in mesenteric lymph nodes. Determination of apoptosis in cat tissues showed that rate of apoptosis/necrosis increased significantly (P?<?0.05) in infected cats tissues in comparison to control cats. Moreover the highest apoptotic ratios of infected cats were observed in ilium and jejunum tissues compared with mesenteric lymph nodes.     

Hemobartonellosis in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) in a domestic breeding colony: case report and preliminary study

Infection with Hemobartonella sp was diagnosed in a colony-born squirrel monkey with normocytic, normochromic anemia and pronounced punctate erythrocytic basophilic stippling on Wright's-Giemsa stained blood films. The diagnosis was confirmed using transmission electron microscopy. Two randomly selected colony-born squirrel monkeys were splenectomized in an effort to activate and detect possible latent hemobartonellosis . One monkey became parasitemic 12 days following splenectomy. The second monkey was inoculated on day 14 with 1 ml of whole blood from an infected, but nonparasitemic monkey and developed overt parasitemia 3 days later (day 17 following splenectomy). Infections in the latter two monkeys were confirmed using scanning electron microscopy.     

Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis by PCR in Men Attending a Primary Care Urology Clinic in South Korea

Trichomonas vaginalis, a causative agent of trichomoniasis, may trigger symptomatic or asymptomatic nongonococcal urethritis and chronic prostatitis in men. Despite the availability of highly sensitive diagnostic tests, such as nucleic acid amplification tests, including PCR, few prospective studies present data on male T. vaginalis infection in South Korea. In the present study, the prevalence of T. vaginalis and associated clinical conditions were evaluated in 201 male patients from a primary care urology clinic in South Korea. The prevalence of T. vaginalis infection in our cohort was 4% (8/201) by PCR. T. vaginalis infection was common in men older than 40 years (median age, 52 years). Among the 8 Trichomonas-positive patients, 87.5% (7/8) had prostatic diseases, such as prostatitis and benign prostatic hyperplasia, and 25.0% (2/8) and 12.5% (1/8) were coinfected with Chlamydia trachomatis and Mycoplasma genitalium, respectively. Our results suggest that T. vaginalis infection is not rare in men attending primary care urology clinics in South Korea, especially in those older than 40 years, in whom it may explain the presence of prostatic disease. The possibility of T. vaginalis infection should be routinely considered in older male patients with prostatic diseases in South Korea.