Myotonic Dystrophy Kinase-Related Cdc42-Binding Kinase Acts as a Cdc42 Effector in Promoting Cytoskeletal Reorganization

The Rho GTPases play distinctive roles in cytoskeletal reorganization associated with growth and differentiation. The Cdc42/Rac-binding p21-activated kinase (PAK) and Rho-binding kinase (ROK) act as morphological effectors for these GTPases. We have isolated two related novel brain kinases whose p21-binding domains resemble that of PAK whereas the kinase domains resemble that of myotonic dystrophy kinase-related ROK. These ~190-kDa myotonic dystrophy kinase-related Cdc42-binding kinases (MRCKs) preferentially phosphorylate nonmuscle myosin light chain at serine 19, which is known to be crucial for activating actin-myosin contractility. The p21-binding domain binds GTP-Cdc42 but not GDP-Cdc42. The multidomain structure includes a cysteine-rich motif resembling those of protein kinase C and n-chimaerin and a putative pleckstrin homology domain. MRCKα and Cdc42^V12 colocalize, particularly at the cell periphery in transfected HeLa cells. Microinjection of plasmid encoding MRCKα resulted in actin and myosin reorganization. Expression of kinase-dead MRCKα blocked Cdc42^V12-dependent formation of focal complexes and peripheral microspikes. This was not due to possible sequestration of the p21, as a kinase-dead MRCKα mutant defective in Cdc42 binding was an equally effective blocker. Coinjection of MRCKα plasmid with Cdc42 plasmid, at concentrations where Cdc42 plasmid by itself elicited no effect, led to the formation of the peripheral structures associated with a Cdc42-induced morphological phenotype. These Cdc42-type effects were not promoted upon coinjection with plasmids of kinase-dead or Cdc42-binding-deficient MRCKα mutants. These results suggest that MRCKα may act as a downstream effector of Cdc42 in cytoskeletal reorganization.     

Association of PI-3 kinase with PAK1 leads to actin phosphorylation and cytoskeletal reorganization

The family of p21-activated kinases (PAKs) have been implicated in the rearrangement of actin cytoskeleton by acting downstream of the small GTPases Rac and Cdc42. Here we report that even though Cdc42/Rac1 or Akt are not activated, phosphatidylinositol-3 (PI-3) kinase activation induces PAK1 kinase activity. Indeed, we demonstrate that PI-3 kinase associates with the N-terminal regulatory domain of PAK1 (amino acids 67-150) leading to PAK1 activation. The association of the PI-3 kinase with the Cdc42/Rac1 binding-deficient PAK1(H83,86L) confirms that the small GTPases are not involved in the PI-3 kinase-PAK1 interaction. Furthermore, PAK1 was activated in cells expressing the dominant-negative forms of Cdc42 or Rac1. Additionally, we show that PAK1 phosphorylates actin, resulting in the dissolution of stress fibers and redistribution of microfilaments. The phosphorylation of actin was inhibited by the kinase-dead PAK1(K299R) or the PAK1 autoinhibitory domain (PAK1(83-149)), indicating that PAK1 was responsible for actin phosphorylation. We conclude that the association of PI-3 kinase with PAK1 regulates PAK1 kinase activity through a Cdc42/Rac1-independent mechanism leading to actin phosphorylation and cytoskeletal reorganization.     

Induction of Exocytosis from Permeabilized Mast Cells by the Guanosine Triphosphatases Rac and Cdc42

We applied recombinant forms of the Rho-related small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) Rac2 and Cdc42/G25K to permeabilized mast cells to test their ability to regulate exocytotic secretion. Mast cells permeabilized with streptolysin-O leak soluble (cytosol) proteins over a period of 5 min and become refractory to stimulation by Ca²⁺ and guanosine triphosphate (GTP)γS over about 20–30 min. This loss of sensitivity is likely to be due to loss of key regulatory proteins that are normally tethered at intracellular locations. Exogenous proteins that retard this loss of sensitivity to stimulation may be similar, if not identical, to those secretory regulators that are lost. Recombinant Rac and Cdc42/G25K, preactivated by binding GTPγS, retard the loss of sensitivity (run-down) and, more importantly, enable secretion to be stimulated by Ca²⁺ alone. Investigation of the concentration dependence of each of these two GTPases applied individually to the permeabilized cells, and of Cdc42/G25K applied in the presence of an optimal concentration of Rac2, has provided evidence for a shared effector pathway and also a second effector pathway activated by Cdc42/G25K alone. Dominant negative mutant (N17) forms of Rac2 and Cdc42/G25K inhibit secretion induced by Ca²⁺ and GTPγS. Our data suggest that Rac2 and Cdc42 should be considered as candidates for G_E, GTPases that mediate exocytosis in cells of hematopoeitic origin.     

Localization of the PAK1-, WASP-, and IQGAP1-specifying regions of Cdc42.

The Rho family small GTPase Cdc42 transmits divergent intracellular signals through multiple effector proteins to elicit cellular responses such as cytoskeletal reorganization. Potential effectors of Cdc42 implicated in mediating its cytoskeletal effect in mammalian cells include PAK1, WASP, and IQGAP1. To investigate the determinants of Cdc42-effector specificity, we utilized recombinant Cdc42 mutants and chimeras made between Cdc42 and RhoA to map the regions of Cdc42 contributing to specific effector p21-binding domain (PBD) interaction. Site-directed mutants of the switch I domain and neighboring regions of Cdc42 demonstrated differential binding patterns toward the PBDs of PAK1, WASP, and IQGAP1, suggesting that switch I provides essential determinants for the effector binding, but recognition of each effector by Cdc42 involves a distinct mechanism. Differing from Rac1, the switch I domain and the surrounding region (amino acids 29 to 55) of Cdc42 appeared to be sufficient for specific binding to PAK1, whereas determinants outside the switch I domain, residues 157-191 and 84-120 in particular, were necessary and sufficient to confer specificity to WASP and IQGAP1, respectively. In addition, IQGAP1, but not PAK1 nor WASP, required the unique "insert region," residues 122-134, of Cdc42 to achieve high affinity binding. Microinjection of the constitutively active Cdc42/RhoA chimeras into serum-starved Swiss 3T3 cells showed that although preserving PAK1- and WASP-binding activity could retain the peripheral actin microspike (PAM)-inducing activity of Cdc42, interaction with PAK1 or WASP was not required for this activity. Moreover, IQGAP1-binding alone by Cdc42 was insufficient for PAM-induction. Thus, Cdc42 utilizes multiple distinct structural determinants to specify different effector recognition and to elicit PAM-inducing effect.     

Expression of constitutively active alpha-PAK reveals effects of the kinase on actin and focal complexes.

The family of p21-activated protein kinases (PAKs) appear to be present in all organisms that have Cdc42-like GTPases. In mammalian cells, PAKs have been implicated in the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades, but there are no reported effects of these kinases on the cytoskeleton. Recently we have shown that a Drosophila PAK is enriched in the leading edge of embryonic epithelial cells undergoing dorsal closure (N. Harden, J. Lee, H.-Y. Loh, Y.-M. Ong, I. Tan, T. Leung, E. Manser, and L. Lim, Mol. Cell. Biol. 16:1896-1908, 1996), where it colocalizes with structures resembling focal complexes. We show here by transfection that in epithelial HeLa cells alpha-PAK is recruited from the cytoplasm to distinct focal complexes by both Cdc42(G12V) and Rac1(G12V), which themselves colocalize to these sites. By deletion analysis, the N terminus of PAK is shown to contain targeting sequences for focal adhesions which indicate that these complexes are the site of kinase function in vivo. Cdc42 and Rac1 cause alpha-PAK autophosphorylation and kinase activation. Mapping alpha-PAK autophosphorylation sites has allowed generation of a constitutively active kinase mutant. By fusing regions of Cdc42 to the C terminus of PAK, activated chimeras were also obtained. Plasmids encoding these different constitutively active alpha-PAKs caused loss of stress fibers when introduced into both HeLa cells and fibroblasts, which was similar to the effect of introducing Cdc42(G12V) or Rac1(G12V). Significantly dramatic losses of focal adhesions were also observed. These combined effects resulted in retraction of the cell periphery after plasmid microinjection. These data support our previous suggestions of a role for PAK downstream of both Cdc42 and Rac1 and indicate that PAK functions include the dissolution of stress fibers and reorganization of focal complexes.     

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Nef recruits the guanine exchange factor Vav1 via an unexpected interface into plasma membrane microdomains for association with p21-activated kinase 2 activity

Alterations of T-cell receptor signaling by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Nef involve its association with a highly active subpopulation of p21-activated kinase 2 (PAK2) within a dynamic signalosome assembled in detergent-insoluble membrane microdomains. Nef-PAK2 complexes contain the GTPases Rac and Cdc42 as well as a factor providing guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity for Rac/Cdc42. However, the identity of this GEF has remained controversial. Previous studies suggested the association of Nef with at least three independent GEFs, Vav, DOCK2/ELMO1, and βPix. Here we used a broad panel of approaches to address which of these GEFs is involved in the functional interaction of Nef with PAK2 activity. Biochemical fractionation and confocal microscopy revealed that Nef recruits Vav1, but not DOCK2/ELMO1 or βPix, to membrane microdomains. Transient RNAi knockdown, analysis of cell lines defective for expression of Vav1 or DOCK2 as well as use of a βPix binding-deficient PAK2 variant confirmed a role for Vav1 but not DOCK2 or βPix in Nef's association with PAK2 activity. Nef-mediated microdomain recruitment of Vav1 occurred independently of the Src homology 3 domain binding PxxP motif, which is known to connect Nef to many cellular signaling processes. Instead, a recently described protein interaction surface surrounding Nef residue F195 was identified as critical for Nef-mediated raft recruitment of Vav1. These results identify Vav1 as a relevant component of the Nef-PAK2 signalosome and provide a molecular basis for the role of F195 in formation of a catalytically active Nef-PAK2 complex.     

A Cdc42 Activation Cycle Coordinated by PI 3-Kinase during Fc Receptor-mediated Phagocytosis

Fcγ Receptor (FcR)-mediated phagocytosis by macrophages requires phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and activation of the Rho-family GTPases Cdc42 and Rac1. Cdc42 is activated at the advancing edge of the phagocytic cup, where actin is concentrated, and is deactivated at the base of the cup. The timing of 3′ phosphoinositide (3′PI) concentration changes in cup membranes suggests a role for 3′PIs in deactivation of Cdc42. This study examined the relationships between PI3K and the patterns of Rho-family GTPase signaling during phagosome formation. Inhibition of PI3K resulted in persistently active Cdc42 and Rac1, but not Rac2, in stalled phagocytic cups. Patterns of 3′PIs and Rho-family GTPase activities during phagocytosis of 5- and 2-μm-diameter microspheres indicated similar underlying mechanisms despite particle size–dependent sensitivities to PI3K inhibition. Expression of constitutively active Cdc42(G12V) increased 3′PI concentrations in plasma membranes and small phagosomes, indicating a role for Cdc42 in PI3K activation. Cdc42(G12V) inhibited phagocytosis at a later stage than inhibition by dominant negative Cdc42(N17). Together, these studies identified a Cdc42 activation cycle organized by PI3K, in which FcR-activated Cdc42 stimulates PI3K and actin polymerization, and the subsequent increase of 3′PIs in cup membranes inactivates Cdc42 to allow actin recycling necessary for phagosome formation.     

Potential Compensation among Group I PAK Members in Hindlimb Ischemia and Wound Healing

PAKs are serine/threonine kinases that regulate cytoskeletal dynamics and cell migration. PAK1 is activated by binding to the small EF hand protein, CIB1, or to the Rho GTPases Rac1 or Cdc42. The role of PAK1 in angiogenesis was established based only on in vitro studies and its role in angiogenesis in vivo has never been examined. Here we tested the hypothesis that PAK1 is an essential regulator of ischemic neovascularization (arteriogenesis and angiogenesis) and wound healing using a global PAK1 knockout mouse. Neovascularization was assessed using unilateral hindlimb ischemia. We found that plantar perfusion, limb use and appearance were not significantly different between 6–8 week old PAK1^−/− and PAK1^+/+ mice throughout the 21-day period following hindlimb ischemia; however a slightly delayed healing was observed in 16 week old PAK1^−/− mice. In addition, the wound healing rate, as assessed with an ear punch assay, was unchanged in PAK1^−/− mice. Surprisingly, however, we observed a notable increase in PAK2 expression and phosphorylation in ischemic gastrocnemius tissue from PAK1^−/− but not PAK1^+/+ mice. Furthermore, we observed higher levels of activated ERK2, but not AKT, in ischemic and non-ischemic muscle of PAK1^−/− mice upon hindlimb ischemic injury. A group I PAK inhibitor, IPA3, significantly inhibited endothelial cell sprouting from aortic rings in both PAK1^−/− and PAK1^+/+ mice, implying that PAK2 is a potential contributor to this process. Taken together, our data indicate that while PAK1 has the potential to contribute to neovascularization and wound healing, PAK2 may functionally compensate when PAK1 is deficient.     

Regulation of Actin Polymerization in Cell-free Systems by GTPγS and Cdc42

We have established a cell-free system to investigate pathways that regulate actin polymerization. Addition of GTPγS to lysates of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) or Dictyostelium discoideum amoeba induced formation of filamentous actin. The GTPγS appeared to act via a small G-protein, since it was active in lysates ofD. discoideum mutants missing either the α₂- or β-subunit of the heterotrimeric G-protein required for chemoattractant-induced actin polymerization in living cells. Furthermore, recombinant Cdc42, but not Rho or Rac, induced polymerization in the cell-free system. The Cdc42-induced increase in filamentous actin required GTPγS binding and was inhibited by a fragment of the enzyme PAK1 that binds Cdc42.

In a high speed supernatant, GTPγS alone was ineffective, but GTPγS-loaded Cdc42 induced actin polymerization, suggesting that the response was limited by guanine nucleotide exchange. Stimulating exchange by chelating magnesium, by adding acidic phospholipids, or by adding the exchange factors Cdc24 or Dbl restored the ability of GTPγS to induce polymerization. The stimulation of actin polymerization did not correlate with PIP₂ synthesis.

     

Activated Rac1 Selectively Up-regulates the Expression of Integrin α6β4 and Induces Cell Adhesion and Membrane Ruffles of Nonadherent Colon Cancer Colo201 Cells

Functions of small GTPases in integrin expression were investigated when the interaction of nonadherent human colon carcinoma 201 cells with the extracellular matrix (ECM) was examined. By transfection of the constitutively active form of a small GTPase Rac1, Rac V12, adhesion of cells to the ECM increased with concomitant cell spreading and formation of membrane ruffles. Activated Cdc42 and Cdc42 V12, but not wild-type Rac1, Cdc42, or RhoA, also induced the adhesion and spreading of Colo201 cells. This adhesion is integrin β4 dependent since an antibody for integrin β4 inhibited the RacV12-dependent cell adhesion and numbers of adhesive cells on laminin-coated plates exceeded those on collagen- and fibronectin-coated plates. By immunofluorescence, in addition to clustering of integrin molecules, expression of integrin α6β4 on the cell surface of Rac V12- and Cdc42 V12-expressing cells was selectively up-regulated without an increase in biosynthesis of α6β4 integrin. Treatment of Rac V12-expressing cells with wortmannin or LY294002, specific inhibitors of phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase, decreased the up-regulated α6β4 and cell adhesion. In light of this evidence, we propose that the regulation of integrin α6β4 expression induced by Rac1 and Cdc42 may play an important role in cell adhesion and tumorigenesis of colon carcinoma cells.     

The Cdc42 Effector Kinase PAK4 Localizes to Cell-Cell Junctions and Contributes to Establishing Cell Polarity

The serine/threonine kinase PAK4 is a Cdc42 effector whose role is not well understood; overexpression of PAK4 has been associated with some cancers, and there are reports that correlate kinase level with increased cell migration in vitro. Here we report that PAK4 is primarily associated with cell-cell junctions in all the cell lines we tested, and fails to accumulate at focal adhesions or at the leading edge of migrating cells. In U2OS osteosarcoma and MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines, PAK4 depletion did not affect collective cell migration, but affected cell polarization. By contrast, Cdc42 depletion (as reported by many studies) caused a strong defect in junctional assembly in multiple cells lines. We also report that the depletion of PAK4 protein or treatment of cells with the PAK4 inhibitor PF-3758309 can lead to defects in centrosome reorientation (polarization) after cell monolayer wounding. These experiments are consistent with PAK4 forming part of a conserved cell-cell junctional polarity Cdc42 complex. We also confirm β-catenin as a target for PAK4 in these cells. Treatment of cells with PF-3758309 caused inhibition of β-catenin Ser-675 phosphorylation, which is located predominantly at cell-cell junctions.     

NMR binding and crystal structure reveal that intrinsically-unstructured regulatory domain auto-inhibits PAK4 by a mechanism different from that of PAK1

Six human PAK members are classified into groups I (PAKs 1–3) and II (PAK4–6). Previously, only group I PAKs were thought to be auto-inhibited but very recently PAK4, the prototype of group II PAKs, has also been shown to be auto-inhibited by its N-terminal regulatory domain. However, the complete auto-inhibitory domain (AID) sequence remains undefined and the mechanism underlying its auto-inhibition is largely elusive. Here, the N-terminal regulatory domain of PAK4 sufficient for auto-inhibiting and binding Cdc42/Rac was characterized to be intrinsically unstructured, but nevertheless we identified the entire AID sequence by NMR. Strikingly, an AID peptide was derived by deleting the binding-unnecessary residues, which has a Kd of 320 nM to the PAK4 catalytic domain. Consequently, the PAK4 crystal structure complexed with the entire AID has been determined, which reveals that the complete kinase cleft is occupied by 20 AID residuescomposed of an N-terminal α-helix and a previously-identified pseudosubstrate motif, thus achieving auto-inhibition. Our study reveals that PAK4 is auto-inhibited by a novel mechanism which is completely different from that for PAK1, thus bearing critical implications for design of inhibitors specific for group II PAKs.     

Positive role of IQGAP1, an effector of Rac1, in actin-meshwork formation at sites of cell-cell contact

The small guanosine triphosphatase Rac1 is activated by E-cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion and is required for the accumulation of actin filaments, E-cadherin, and β-catenin at sites of cell-cell contact. However, the modes of activation and action of Rac1 remain to be clarified. We here found that suppression of IQGAP1, an actin-binding protein and an effector of Rac1, by small interfering RNA apparently reduced the accumulation of actin filaments, E-cadherin, and β-catenin at sites of cell-cell contact in Madin-Darby canine kidney II epithelial cells under the conditions in which knockdown of Rac1 reduced them. Knockdown of Rac1 did not affect the localization of these junctional components in cells expressing a constitutively active IQGAP1 mutant defective in Rac1/Cdc42 binding. Knockdown of either Rac1 or IQGAP1 accelerated the 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced cell-cell dissociation. The basal Rac1 activity, which was maintained by E-cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion, was inhibited in the IQGAP1-knocked down cells, whereas the Rac1 activity was increased in the cells overexpressing IQGAP1. Together, these results indicate that Rac1 enhances the accumulation of actin filaments, E-cadherin, and β-catenin by acting on IQGAP1 and suggest that there exists a positive feedback loop comprised of “E-cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion→Rac1 activation→actin-meshwork formation by IQGAP1→increasing E-cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion.”     

Rac1-dependent recruitment of PAK2 to G2 phase centrosomes and their roles in the regulation of mitotic entry

During mitotic entry, the centrosomes provide a scaffold for initial activation of the CyclinB/Cdk1 complex, the mitotic kinase Aurora A, and the Aurora A-activating kinase p21-activated kinase (PAK). The activation of PAK at the centrosomes is yet regarded to happen independently of the Rho-GTPases Rac/Cdc42. In this study, Rac1 (but not RhoA or Cdc42) is presented to associate with the centrosomes from early G₂ phase until prometaphase in a cell cycle-dependent fashion, as evidenced by western blot analysis of prepared centrosomes and by immunolabeling. PAK associates with the G₂/M-phase centrosomes in a Rac1-dependent fashion. Furthermore, specific inhibition of Rac1 by C. difficile toxinB-catalyzed glucosylation or by knockout results in inhibited activation of PAK1/2, Aurora A, and the CyclinB/Cdk1 complex in late G₂ phase/prophase and delayed mitotic entry. Inhibition of PAK activation at late G₂-phase centrosomes caused by Rac1 inactivation coincides with impeded activation of Aurora A and the CyclinB/Cdk1 complex and delayed mitotic entry.     

PAK4, a novel effector for Cdc42Hs, is implicated in the reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton and in the formation of filopodia.

The GTPases Rac and Cdc42Hs control diverse cellular functions. In addition to being mediators of intracellular signaling cascades, they have important roles in cell morphogenesis and mitogenesis. We have identified a novel PAK-related kinase, PAK4, as a new effector molecule for Cdc42Hs. PAK4 interacts only with the activated form of Cdc42Hs through its GTPase-binding domain (GBD). Co-expression of PAK4 and the constitutively active Cdc42HsV12 causes the redistribution of PAK4 to the brefeldin A-sensitive compartment of the Golgi membrane and the subsequent induction of filopodia and actin polymerization. Importantly, the reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton is dependent on PAK4 kinase activity and on its interaction with Cdc42Hs. Thus, unlike other members of the PAK family, PAK4 provides a novel link between Cdc42Hs and the actin cytoskeleton. The cellular locations of PAK4 and Cdc42Hs suggest a role for the Golgi in cell morphogenesis.     

PAK1 negatively regulates the activity of the Rho exchange factor NET1

Rho family small G-protein activity is controlled by guanine nucleotide exchange factors that stimulate the release of GDP, thus allowing GTP binding. Once activated, Rho proteins control cell signaling through interactions with downstream effector proteins, leading to changes in cytoskeletal organization and gene expression. The ability of Rho family members to modulate the activity of other Rho proteins is also intrinsic to these processes. In this work we show that the Rac/Cdc42hs-regulated protein kinase PAK1 down-regulates the activity of the RhoA-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor NET1. Specifically, PAK1 phosphorylates NET1 on three sites in vitro: serines 152, 153, and 538. Replacement of serines 152 and 153 with glutamate residues down-regulates the activity of NET1 as an exchange factor in vitro and its ability to stimulate actin stress fiber formation in cells. Using a phospho-specific antibody that recognizes NET1 phosphorylated on serine 152, we show that PAK1 phosphorylates NET1 on this site in cells and that Rac1 stimulates serine 152 phosphorylation in a PAK1-dependent manner. Furthermore, coexpression of constitutively active PAK1 inhibits the ability of NET1 to stimulate actin polymerization only when serines 152 and 153 are present. These data provide a novel mechanism for the control of RhoA activity by Rac1 through the PAK-dependent phosphorylation of NET1 to reduce its activity as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor.     

PAK1 and PAK2 have different roles in HGF-induced morphological responses

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) stimulates dissociation of epithelial cells (scattering) and cell migration. Several Rho GTPases are required for HGF-induced scattering. PAK1 and PAK2 are members of the p21-activated kinase (PAK) family of serine/threonine kinases, and are activated by the Rho GTPases Rac and Cdc42. Here we investigate the contributions of PAK1 and PAK2 to HGF-induced motile response. HGF stimulates phosphorylation of PAK1 and PAK2. Knockdown of PAK1 inhibits HGF-stimulated migration and loss of cell–cell junctions in DU145 prostate carcinoma cells, whereas knockdown of PAK2 enhances loss of cell–cell junctions and increases lamellipodium extension but does not affect migration speed. On the other hand, in PC3 prostate carcinoma cells, which lack cell–cell junctions, knockdown of PAK1 or PAK2 reduces HGF-stimulated migration. PAK2 knockdown increases phosphorylation of PAK1, indicating that PAK2 provides a negative feedback on PAK1. We hypothesise that PAK2 acts in part via PAK1 to regulate HGF-induced scattering.