Shoot Inversion-induced Ethylene Production in the Diageotropica Tomato Mutant

Shoot inversion was found to inhibit shoot elongation over 24h in the diageotropica (dgt) mutant tomato and its isogenicparent, VNF8, by 55% and 51%, respectively. Previous studieswith normal tomato and other species would suggest that gravitystress-induced ethylene production in the inverted shoot retardselongation. Since exposure of the diageotropic shoot of thedgt mutant tomato to ethylene restores normal upward growth,it might appear that dgt is defective in its capacity to produceethylene. That shoot inversion did stimulate some ethylene productionand that the ethylene action inhibitor, AgNO₃, largely negatedthe inhibiting effect of shoot inversion on elongation in dgtstrongly suggest that the ethylene produced in the invertedshoot was responsible for its retardation of growth. Althoughethylene production in the slower growing dgt was much lessthan that in the faster-growing VNF8, the dgt shoot was foundto be much more sensitive to ethylene. Shoot inversion, ethylene, shoot elongation, diageotropica (dgt), auxin     

Characterization of the Arrest in Anther Development Associated with Gibberellin Deficiency of the gib-1 Mutant of Tomato

The role of gibberellins in flower bud development was investigated by studying the gib-1 mutant of tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum. This gibberellin-deficient mutant initiates flower buds, but floral development is not completed unless the mutant is treated with gibberellin. Treatment with other plant growth regulators does not induce normal flower development. Development of gib-1 flower buds, as measured by progress toward anthesis, ceases at a bud length of 2.5 millimeters; however, increase in size of the bud continues. Buds between 2.5 and 3.7 millimeters are developmentally arrested but still are capable of developing normally after treatment with gibberellic acid. Anthers of these developmentally arrested buds contain pollen mother cells that are in the G1 phase of premeiotic interphase. Following treatment of developmentally arrested buds with gibberellic acid, premeiotic DNA synthesis and callose accumulation in pollen mother cells are evident by 48 hours posttreatment, and within 66 hours, prophase I of meiosis- and meiosis-related changes in tapetum development are observable.     

Effects of Waterlogging on the Gibberellin Content and Growth of Tomato Plants

Flooding of tomato roots results in decreased stem growth. Wehave shown that flooding will reduce levels of gibberellins(GA) in the roots, shoots, and bleeding sap of tomato plants.The adventitious roots that appear on the third day of waterloggingmay be responsible for the production of GA that accumulatein the shoot after 3 to 4 days of flooding. The endogenous GAof tomato will stimulate stem growth of tomato plants. Initially,application of gibberellic acid (GA₃) will stimulate the growthof flooded plants to a greater extent than that of nonwaterloggedplants. It is suggested that one of the first effects of floodingis to reduce GA levels and so inhibit stem elongation. At alater stage of waterlogging GA₃ is less effective and otherfactors appear to inhibit shoot growth.     

Effects of Far-red Light on the Hormonal Control of Side Shoot Growth in the Tomato

Side shoot growth in young tomato plants was almost completelysuppressed by a 5 min period of far-red light immediately followinga 16 h photoperiod from fluorescent tubes, whereas plants givenan identical photoperiod but lacking the far-red treatment branchedprofusely. The influence of far-red light on the degree of sideshoot suppression and the correlated changes in the levels ofauxins, gibberellins, cytokinins and abscisic acid is presentedand discussed in relation to current hypotheses of correlativeinhibition. It is suggested that far-red light causes increasedauxin synthesis in the apex and young leaves, which in turninduces the formation of abscisic acid in or near the axillarybuds, and it is this hormone which inhibits bud outgrowth. Therole of cytokinins and gibberellins remains uncertain but theyprobably act in a sequential manner, the gibberellins promotingbud growth following cytokinin-mediated release from apicaldominance.     

Cytokinin-Induced Parthenocarpic Fruit Development in Tomato Is Partly Dependent on Enhanced Gibberellin and Auxin Biosynthesis

Fruit set of plants largely depends on the biosynthesis and crosstalk of phytohormones. To date the role of cytokinins (CKs) in the fruit development is less understood. Here, we showed that parthenocarpic fruit could be induced by 1-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-3-phenylurea (CPPU, an active CK) in tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom). The fresh weight of CPPU-induced parthenocarpic fruits was comparable with that induced by GA₃. Importantly, CPPU-induced parthenocarpy was found to be compromised by simultaneous application of paclobutrazol (a GA biosynthesis inhibitor), and this effect could be restored by exogenous GA₃. Like pollination, CPPU-induced fruit showed enhanced accumulation of GA₁₊₃ and indole-3-acetic (IAA), which were accompanied by elevated expression of GA biosynthesis genes like SlGPS, SlGA20ox1, SlGA20ox2 and SlGA3ox1, and IAA biosynthesis gene ToFZY. Elevated GAs level in CPPU-induced fruits was also associated with down-regulation of GA inactivation genes, namely SlGA2ox1,2,3,4,5 in comparison with untreated control. These results suggested that CKs may induce parthenocarpy in tomato partially through modulation of GA and IAA metabolisms.     

Effects of Gibberellin, Clone and Environment on Cone Initiation, Shoot Growth and Branching in Pinus contorta

Effects of photoperiod, temperature and gibberellin applicationwere clearly separated from clonal differences when small rootedcuttings, originating from two ‘floriferous’ treesof the same provenance of Pinus contorta Dougl., were treatedwith a simple micro-injection technique and grown in growthcabinets. Short days (10 h) for 11 weeks induced six times asmany female cones as long days (19.5 h), completely inhibitedfurther needle elongation after 5 weeks, and also led to enhancedbranching by year 3. Cool temperatures appeared to favour malecone initiation in year 1, and (in conjunction with long days)significantly promoted height in year 2. Injection with 1 mgGA_4/7 led to substantial and highly significant increases inbud growth in year 1, and in height, needle number and totalneedle length in year 2. Gibberellin treatment also increasedbranching but did not significantly affect internode elongationin year 2, nor cone initiation or needle elongation in year1. Highly significant clonal differences occurred, with onegenotype having longer leaves and buds in year 1, and up to80 per cent greater numbers and total lengths of needles inyear 2. Marked clonal differences in height growth, branchingand sex ratio were also found. The implications of both resultsand approach are discussed in relation to developmental physiology,genetic selection and advances in forestry research. leaf growth, height growth, branching, cone initiation, sex, photoperiod, temperature, controlled environments, gibberellin, vegetative propagation, clonal differences, Pinus contorta,, pine     

Effects of Leaf Age and Position on the Shoot Axis on Potassium Absorption by Tomato Leaf Slices

The effect of leaf age on K (⁸⁶Rb) influx into tomato (Lycopersiconesculentum Mill.) leaf lamina slices was determined for leaves5, 9 and 13 counting acropetally. Potassium influx rates expressedon a leaf fresh weight basis declined rapidly during leaf elongationat external KCI concentrations between 0.5 and 20.0 mM. In fullyexpanded leaves, K influx rates declined more slowly with age.The onset of senescence in mature leaves did not result in alarge loss in K uptake capability. Leaf position on the shootaxis and the stage of whole plant development had little influenceon K influx into leaf cells. It is suggested that the rapiddecrease in K influx in growing leaves is related to a dilutionin the concentration of K transporter sites resulting from anincrease in cell volume and weight. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill, tomato, free space, potassium, influx rate, ion uptake, leaf slices, leaf age leaf ontogeny     

Synergism between Gibberellin and Auxin in the Growth of Intact Tomato

Gibberellin A_4&7 was more effective than gibberellic acid in increasing shoot elongation when applied to the apex of intact Lycopersicum esculentum seedlings of Tiny Tim, a dwarf cultivar, and Winsall, a tall cultivar. After 14 days, gibberellic acid and gibberellin A_4&7 stimulated growth of the dwarf more than the tall tomato. In tall tomato the application of indole-3-acetic acid alone (6.1 μg/plant) showed an inhibitory growth effect, but when applied with 17.5 μg per plant of gibberellic acid, it had a synergistic effect at 7 days but not at 14 days. When the auxin concentration was reduced to 0.61 μg per plant a synergistic effect was observed on tall plants at 7 and 14 days between indole-3-acetic acid and gibberellic acid. Application of gibberellin A_4&7 with auxin did not give a synergistic response in tall or dwarf tomato.     

Water Permeability during Tomato Fruit Development in Normal and rin Nonripening Mutant

This work tested one aspect of the relations between membrane permeability and fruit ripening. Membrane permeability was measured as [³H]water efflux rate from preloaded fruit pericarp disks. Different stages of fruit development were compared between two tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) strains: the normal Rutgers and the isogenic nonripening rin strain. The first significant increase in permeability was measured in Rutgers tissue at 110% of development, after fruit ripening had already begun as indicated by ethylene and CO₂ evolution and lycopene synthesis. The rin did not show any increase in tissue permeability during fruit development or maturation.     

Stress-induced Ethylene Production in the Ethylene-requiring Tomato Mutant Diageotropica

Ethylene synthesis in vegetative tissues is thought to be controlled by indoleacetic acid (IAA). However, ethylene synthesis in the diageotropica (dgt) mutant of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) was much less sensitive to IAA than in the normal variety (VFN8). Yet, mechanical wounding stimulated ethylene production by the mutant. The dgt tomato provides an opportunity to study the regulation of stress ethylene independent of IAA effects. Waterlogging (i.e. anaerobic stress) stimulated production of the ethylene precursor, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), in the roots. The ACC was transported to the shoot where it was converted to ethylene. The dgt mutant efficiently utilized ACC for ethylene synthesis under aerobic conditions. The results confirm that the genetic lesion in dgt is located at a step prior to the formation of ACC. Furthermore, induction of ethylene synthesis by anaerobic or mechanical stresses in this mutant is independent of IAA action.     

A New Tomato Mutant Inefficient in the Transport of Iron

An Fe-inefficient tomato mutant, T3238fe (Lycopersicon esculentum) was identified by growing the plants in solution cultures containing different concentrations of FeHEDTA. Approach grafts of T3238Fe (Fe-efficient) top on T3238fe rootstock and vice versa, located the cause of Fe inefficiency in T3238fe roots. The T3238Fe tomato takes up more Fe than T3238fe and it responds favorably to Fe-stress by releasing hydrogen ions from its roots, increasing reduction of Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺ at its roots, and increasing the citrate concentration in its roots. T3238fe showed very little response to Fe stress; it was unable to absorb and transport adequate Fe from PeEDDHA to support growth.     

In vitro Growth of Vegetative Tomato Shoot Apices

Explants from the shoot apex of the tomato, comprising the apicaldome and youngest primordium together with small amounts ofsub-apical tissue were cultured for periods of 1 to 4 plastochrons.By the use of a simple parameter, the axillary distance, thegrowth-rate could be accurately monitored throughout each plastochron. Gibberellic acid, coconut milk, and kinetin, in addition tosucrose and inorganic salts, all promoted growth of the apex;a combination of gibberellic acid and coconut milk gave thefastest growth. Temperature had a large effect on the growth-ratewith an in vitro Q₁₀ of 2.1 contrasted with an in vivo Q₁₀ of1.2 over the range of 15 to 25 ?C. On gibberellic acid and coconutmilk at 15 ?C two-thirds of the in vivo growth--rate was sustainedin culture for two plastochrons after which the growth-rategradually declined; at 20 and 25 ?C growth-rates slightly higherthan in vivo rates were sustained for 1 plastochron before amore rapid decline. The anatomy of these in vitro apices wasnormal for 1? plastochrons after which there were small increasesin cell volume in the developing primordium. Reducing the amount of sub-apical tissue drastically reducedthe growth rate but had little effect on the responses to gibberellicacid and coconut milk. Explants are considered to be useful material for studying thechanges that take place in the apex during the course of 1 or2 plastochrons, but inadequate on the media tested for experimentsinvolving longer periods of growth. Explants also provide asensitive assay system for the effects of growth factors onthe rate of shoot apical growth.     

Some Physiological Characteristics of the Ethylene-requiring Tomato Mutant Diageotropica

The diageotropica mutant of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is shown to require exogenous ethylene for normal growth and development. This single gene mutant is characterized by unsupported horizontal growth of shoots and roots, dark green hyponastic leaf segments, thin rigid stems, and primary and adventitious roots which lack lateral roots. Experiments with growth regulators indicate that the mutant does not produce normal amounts of ethylene in response to auxin treatment. Tests with ethylene-producing compounds or ethylene precursors demonstrate that the mutant requires ethylene for normality. Ethylene concentrations as low as 0.005 microliters per liter are capable of completely normalizing mutant characteristics. This mutant with its isogenic parent variety, cv. VFN8, should be a suitable tool for investigating auxin-stimulated ethylene production and their interrelationship in the control of plant morphology and physiology.     

Effect of Gibberellin and Auxin on Parthenocarpic Fruit Growth Induction in the cv Micro-Tom of Tomato

The effect of applied gibberellin (GA) and auxin on fruit-set and growth has been investigated in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) cv Micro-Tom. It was found that to prevent competition between developing fruits only one fruit per truss should be left on the plant. Unpollinated ovaries responded to GA₃ and to different auxins [indol-3-acetic acid, naphthaleneacetic acid, and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)], 2,4-D being the most efficient. GA₃- and 2,4-D-induced fruits had different internal morphology, with poor locular tissue development in the case of GA, and pseudoembryos development in the case of 2,4-D. Also, GA₃ produced larger cells in the internal region of the mesocarp (IM) associated with higher mean C values, whereas 2,4-D produced more cell layers in the pericarp than pollinated fruits. The smaller size of GA₃- compared with 2,4-D-induced fruits was due to them having fewer cells, only partially compensated by the larger size of IM cells. Simultaneous application of GA₃ and 2,4-D produced parthenocarpic fruits similar to pollinated fruits, but for the absence of seeds, suggesting that both kinds of hormones are involved in the induction of fruit development upon pollination. It is concluded that Micro-Tom constitutes a convenient model system, compared to tall cultivars, to investigate the hormonal regulation of fruit development in tomato.     

Possible Involvement of Altered Gibberellin Metabolism in the Induction of Tomato Irregular Ripening in Dwarf Cherry Tomato by Silverleaf Whitefly

External and internal tomato irregular ripening (TIR) symptoms were associated with the feeding of silverleaf whitefly (SLW), Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring. Four experiments consisting of various soil drench applications of GA₃ (100 ppm) and cycocel (CCC, an inhibitor of GA biosynthesis; 1,000 and 2,000 ppm) were applied to dwarf cherry tomato cv. Florida Petite in the presence and absence of SLW in an attempt to mimic the disorders induced by the SLW. The application of GA₃ induced external and internal TIR symptoms similar to the SLW-induced disorder. Minimal TIR-like symptoms also occurred in the control and CCC treatments. Internal TIR symptoms in GA₃, GA₃ plus SLW, and GA₃ plus CCC treatments ranged from 66% to 97% throughout the experiments. The incidence of external TIR symptoms was highest in the GA₃ plus SLW treatment compared with the other treatments. CCC reduced the incidence of external TIR symptoms induced by GA₃ or GA₃ plus SLW treatments. However, CCC-treated plants also attracted more oviposition and higher populations of SLW and consequently induced a greater incidence of TIR symptoms than SLW treatment alone. Furthermore, although low SLW populations may be associated with low external TIR symptoms, internal TIR symptoms almost always remained high in infested plants. The results suggest that the TIR disorder in dwarf cherry tomato which is induced by the SLW may be a gibberellin-regulated disorder. Received May 27, 1997; accepted September 26, 1997     

番茄突变体Epinastics的乙烯反应表现型分析

对番茄(Lycopersicoin esculentum Mil1.)突变体Epinastics(Epi)及其野生亲本VFN幼苗、成长植株和果实生长发育与成熟特性进行了系统研究和比较分析.Epi突变体从幼苗到果实都有乙烯过量合成,在黄化幼苗部分三重反应、成长植株叶柄严重上位生长、器官脱落和果实加速成熟等多方面表现出明显增强的乙烯反应,与已知的乙烯反应模式相符.强烈的顶端优势、紧凑的植株形态提示乙烯在植物的顶端优势调节中可能起着重要的作用.Epi突变体黄化幼苗项勾缩小、叶片和花瓣衰老延迟,与传统的乙烯反应不符,提示植物不同的生长发育特性由不同的乙烯信号转导途径调控.     

Al Inhibits Both Shoot Development and Root Growth in als3, an Al-Sensitive Arabidopsis Mutant

In als3, an Al-sensitive Arabidopsis mutant, shoot development and root growth are sensitive to Al. Mutant als3 seedlings grown in an Al-containing medium exhibit severely inhibited leaf expansion and root growth. In the presence of Al, unexpanded leaves accumulate callose, an indicator of Al damage in roots. The possibility that the inhibition of shoot development in als3 is due to the hyperaccumulation of Al in this tissue was examined. However, it was found that the levels of Al that accumulated in shoots of als3 are not different from the wild type. The inhibition of shoot development in als3 is not a consequence of nonspecific damage to roots, because other metals (e.g. LaCl3 or CuSO4) that strongly inhibit root growth did not block shoot development in als3 seedlings. Al did not block leaf development in excised als3 shoots grown in an Al-containing medium, demonstrating that the Al-induced damage in als3 shoots was dependent on the presence of roots. This suggests that Al inhibition of als3 shoot development may be a delocalized response to Al-induced stresses in roots following Al exposure.