Conflict Misleads Large Carnivore Management and Conservation: Brown Bears and Wolves in Spain

Large carnivores inhabiting human-dominated landscapes often interact with people and their properties, leading to conflict scenarios that can mislead carnivore management and, ultimately, jeopardize conservation. In northwest Spain, brown bears Ursus arctos are strictly protected, whereas sympatric wolves Canis lupus are subject to lethal control. We explored ecological, economic and societal components of conflict scenarios involving large carnivores and damages to human properties. We analyzed the relation between complaints of depredations by bears and wolves on beehives and livestock, respectively, and bear and wolf abundance, livestock heads, number of culled wolves, amount of paid compensations, and media coverage. We also evaluated the efficiency of wolf culling to reduce depredations on livestock. Bear damages to beehives correlated positively to the number of female bears with cubs of the year. Complaints of wolf predation on livestock were unrelated to livestock numbers; instead, they correlated positively to the number of wild ungulates harvested during the previous season, the number of wolf packs, and to wolves culled during the previous season. Compensations for wolf complaints were fivefold higher than for bears, but media coverage of wolf damages was thirtyfold higher. Media coverage of wolf damages was unrelated to the actual costs of wolf damages, but the amount of news correlated positively to wolf culling. However, wolf culling was followed by an increase in compensated damages. Our results show that culling of the wolf population failed in its goal of reducing damages, and suggest that management decisions are at least partly mediated by press coverage. We suggest that our results provide insight to similar scenarios, where several species of large carnivores share the landscape with humans, and management may be reactive to perceived conflicts.     

Ephemeroptera of Sri Lanka: Ephemeridae

Abstract Two new species of Ephemera are described, Ephemera supposita Eaton is redescribed, and Rhoenanthus posticus Banks is transferred to Ephemera and redescribed. A key to the imagos of Ephemera from Sri Lanka is included.     

Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka

Social Scientists’ Association, ETHNICITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN SRI LANKA, Karunaratne & Sons, Colombo, 1984, 202 pp., 25 Rs.     

Enterotoxigenic staphylococci in Sri Lanka

Two hundred and ninety-three strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical specimens were tested for enterotoxigenicity by the Optimum Sensitivity Plate (OSP) method. Thirty-nine per cent produced enterotoxins A, B, C, D or E. Enterotoxin B was detected more often than the others. The OSP technique was found to be satisfactory for the detection of enterotoxigenic staphylococci.     

Infant mortality in Sri Lanka

Infant mortality in Sri Lanka declined substantially between 1961 and 1980, the reduction being higher during the post-natal period. 3 distinct phases were identified: 1) a declining trend in the face of several fluctuations; 2) a sharp reversal of the trend and then an increase; and 3) a more consistent decline. Between the periods 1961-65 and 1976-80, deaths from exogenous and endogenous causes were reduced considerably and nearly equally. The probabilities of survival increased in every age group, proportionally more in the 1st week of life. There was no evidence that changes in national income or total food supply were factors, but protein calorie availability appeared to affect the rate. Distribution of free supplementary food, increase in public health personnel, more immunization, and a rise in the number of institutional births appeared to have initiated and sustained the more recent decline in infant mortality. Increasing levels of female education also augmented these developments. Further efforts to improve living conditions, access to safe water and flush or water-seal toilets, and motivating women to deliver in institutions and extend their postnatal stay, would probably result in a further decline, as well as general strategies such as integrating public health and medical services and improving health education programs.     

Seasonality of mortality in Sri Lanka: Biometeorological considerations

The seasonal variation of mortality in Sri Lanka was studied in relation to meteorological variables. Time series data of the total monthly number of deaths in men and women from 1976 to 1980 were analyzed by power spectrum analysis of the fast Fourier transformation method in the areas of Colombo (lowland area, altitude 7 m) and Nuwara-Eliya (highland area, altitude 1890 m), respectively. In the Colombo area, where the mean temperature was always high (mean, 27.5 °C), a seasonal variation in mortality of 6 months was validated by power spectrum analysis with peak times in June and November. These mortality peaks corresponded to those of the amounts of rainfall which also showed an identical predominant period of 6 months. In the Nuwara Eliya area, where the mean temperature was always low at about 15–16 °C, a seasonal variation of approximately 3 months was found in addition to the 6 months' periodicity. The comparison of the power spectrum pattern of mortality with those of meteorological variables suggested that the amount of rainfall was associated with the seasonal variation of mortality in the Nuwara-Eliya area. In conclusion, the seasonality of mortality in Sri Lanka, a typical tropical zone country, was related to seasonal variation in the amount of rainfall, or a humidity factor, but not to mean temperature.     

Anthropologizing Sri Lanka: A Eurocentric Misadventure.

Anthropologizing Sri Lanka:. Eurocentric Misadventure. Susantha Goonatilake. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001. 306 pp.     

The Musca domestica complex in Sri Lanka

An account is given of samples of houseflies taken from various natural populations in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) to investigate the number of evolutionary forms of housefly that may occur on the island. The results are related to the formal taxonomy of the genus Musca.     

Karyosystematic studies onRubiaceae: Chromosome counts from Sri Lanka

Chromosome numbers for 16 different taxa ofRubiaceae from Sri Lanka are presented. Counts for 13 species, including 5 genera and 1 tribe, are new. The results are listed, compared with available literature data and discussed in regard to their systematical importance.     

Fungi associated with dried fish in Sri Lanka

The mycoflora of dried-salted fish from markets in Kandy, Sri Lanka was studied with emphasis on visibly spoiled dried fish. A total of 61 fungal isolates from 25 dried-fish were isolated and identified. The most prevalent fungus wasAspergillus niger. Species ofAspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. glaucus, A. restrictus, Aureobasidium spp.Basipetospora halophila (a genuinely halophilic fungus)Cladosporium herbarum, Gliomastix, spp.,Penicillium chalybeum andPenicillium expansum were present. The isolated fungi did not grow in synthetic media containing more than 30% sodium chloride.Aureobasidium spp. andGliomastix spp. did not grow on dried-fish under laboratory conditions. The protective exoskeleton appeared to prevent fungal growth on dried shrimp. TheA. flavus strains isolated were not aflatoxigenic.     

Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities in Sri Lanka

Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities in Sri Lanka. Tessa J. Bartholomeusz and Chandra R. de Silva. eds. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998. 212 pp.     

Mating Strategies in Relation to Sexually Selected Infanticide in a Non-Social Carnivore: the Brown Bear

Based on the sexually selected infanticide (SSI) hypothesis, infanticide can be an adaptive mating strategy for males, but this is has rarely been documented in non‐social mammals. This phenomenon should not benefit females, so one would expect females to evolve mating counter strategies in order to protect their infants from infanticidal males. Cases of SSI are extremely difficult to document in the field, especially for non‐social species. Using field observations and genetic methods, we describe mating strategies employed by both sexes of brown bears (Ursus arctos) in relation to SSI. We present evidence for the first time suggesting that infanticide is an adaptive male mating strategy in this non‐social carnivore, as all requirements for SSI are fulfilled (1) infanticide shortens the time to the mother's next estrus, (2) the perpetrator is not the father of the killed infants, and (3) putative perpetrators sire the next litter. Moreover, all infanticide cases occurred during the mating season. We expected that primarily immigrant males were infanticidal, as in social species. However, we found that resident adult males commonly committed infanticide. Perhaps they recognize females they have mated with previously. Moreover, we used DNA‐based parentage testing to demonstrate a minimum of 14.5% of multiple paternities (up to 28% for litters with at least three young). Female promiscuity to confuse paternity may be an adaptive counter strategy to avoid infanticide.     

Movements of some indigenous riverine fish in Sri Lanka

The migratory movements of reproductive potamodromus fish established in man-made tropical lakes in the dry zone of Sri Lanka were determined. It was shown that the nine indigenous riverine species do not spawn in these lakes but move into the upstream channels when sexually mature. The pattern of upstream movement was found to be species-specific although most species showed a diurnal periodicity. It is suggested that the development of totally lacustrine forms of riverine species is very unlikely to occur in the man-made lakes of Sri Lanka because of their relatively short duration time.     

The seasonality of monsoonal primary productivity in Sri Lanka

The relationship between phytoplankton primary production and seasonality of physico-chemical parameters were examined for five man-made lakes in the dry-zone of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka experiences two monsoons dividing the year into four meteorological seasons: — the North East (October–December) and South West (April–June) monsoons and the two inter-monsoons. A significant log linear relationship was found between Secchi disc depth and the depth of the euphotic zone which was lowest during the NE monsoon. Maximum mean photosynthetic rate ranged from 0.935 ± 0.067 SE to 0.479 mg O₂l^–1 h^–1 ± 0.115. Gross primary productivity which ranged from 0.378 g O₂ m^–2 h^–1 in the NE monsoon to 0.980 g O₂ m^–2 h^–1 in the SW monsoon showed significant season variation. This is shown to be determined either directly or indirectly by the light regime.     

Exclusive breastfeeding in Sri Lanka: problems of interpretation of reported rates

Accurate interpretation of reported breastfeeding rates is essential in understanding the true picture of a country's breastfeeding status. In Sri Lanka, where the reported exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) rate among infants aged from 0 to 5 months is 75%, accurate understanding of this rate is of the utmost importance. The danger of misinterpreting the data and assuming that Sri Lanka has achieved a high EBF rate is that health workers begin to believe that no further effort should be made in this area. This is very dangerous as the potential to further improve rates of EBF will not be addressed. We discuss the interpretation of survey data and various definitions used in the relevant literature. We strongly recommend that interpretation of EBF rates should be done only after careful evaluation of the definitions and survey methods used.