Land-Use History and Forest Regeneration in the Cayey Mountains, Puerto Rico

Although deforestation continues to be a major threat to tropical biodiversity, abandonment of agricultural land in Puerto Rico provides an opportunity to study long-term patterns of secondary forest regeneration. Using aerial photographs from 1937, 1967, and 1995, we determined land-use history for 2443 ha in the Cayey Mountains. Pastures were the dominant land cover in 1937 and <20% of the area was classified as forest. Between 1937 and 1995, forest cover increased to 62% due to widespread abandonment of agriculture. To examine the effect of historic land use on current forest structure and species composition, we sampled secondary forests in 24 abandoned pastures, 9 abandoned coffee plantations and 4 old-growth forest sites. Sites were located on two soil types along an elevational gradient (125–710 m) and included a chronosequence from 4 to over 80 years old. After 25–30 years, basal area and species richness in secondary forest sites derived from abandoned pastures and coffee plantations were similar to old-growth forest sites. The species composition of secondary forests derived from abandoned pastures and coffee plantations remained distinct from old-growth forest. In addition to historic land use, age and elevation were important environmental variables explaining variation in secondary forest species composition. Non-indigenous species were common in recently abandoned pastures and coffee plantations, but their importance declined in the older sites. This study demonstrates that secondary forests on private land can be an important component of the conservation of tropical tree biodiversity. Received 16 June 1999; Accepted 8 October 1999.     

No Association of Coffee Consumption with Gastric Ulcer,Duodenal Ulcer,Reflux Esophagitis,and Non-Erosive Reflux Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study of 8,013 Healthy Subjects in Japan

Probably due to caffeine-induced gastric acid secretion, negative effects of coffee upon various upper-gastrointestinal diseases have been precariously accepted, despite the inadequate epidemiological evidence. Our aim is to evaluate the effect of coffee consumption on four major acid-related diseases: gastric ulcer (GU), duodenal ulcer (DU), reflux esophagitis (RE), and non-erosive reflux disease (NERD) based on the large-scale multivariate analysis. Of the 9,517 healthy adults, GU, DU, and RE were diagnosed by endoscopy, and NERD was diagnosed by the symptoms of heartburn and regurgitation without esophageal erosion. Associations between coffee consumption and the four disorders were evaluated, together with age, gender, body mass index (BMI), Helicobacter pylori (HP) infection status, pepsinogen I/II ratio, smoking, and alcohol. We further performed meta-analysis using the random effects model to redefine the relationship between coffee intake and peptic ulcer disease. The eligible 8,013 study subjects comprised of 5,451 coffee drinkers and 2,562 non-coffee drinkers. By univariate analysis, age, BMI, pepsinogen I/II ratio, smoking, and alcohol showed significant associations with coffee consumption. By multiple logistic regression analysis, positively correlated factors with significance were HP infection, current smoking, BMI, and pepsinogen I/II ratio for GU; HP infection, pepsinogen I/II ratio, and current smoking for DU; HP non-infection, male, BMI, pepsinogen I/II ratio, smoking, age, and alcohol for RE; younger age, smoking, and female for NERD. The meta-analyses could detect any association of coffee consumption with neither GU nor DU. In conclusion, there are no significant relationship between coffee consumption and the four major acid-related upper gastrointestinal disorders.     

Decaf and the Steeplechase Towards Decaffito—the Coffee from Caffeine-Free Arabica Plants

Unquestionably, the popularity of the coffee beverage relies on its alerting attribute caffeine. However, susceptibilities to this purine alkaloid, quite frequently associated with health concerns, encouraged a significant market for decaffeinated coffee. The beans of Coffea arabica render the best beverage and a decaffeinated coffee has to preserve the desired organoleptic characteristics of this species. Consequently, besides technical removal of caffeine, the endeavors to attain a decaffeinated Arabica coffee range from traditional studies on genetic variability to advanced techniques to produce genetic modified coffee. The aim of this review is to recover part of this subject focusing mainly on the natural genetic variation for caffeine content in Arabica. We also present historical information about caffeine discovery and briefly discuss molecular approaches to reduce caffeine. We introduce here the term decaffito for coffee derived from Arabica plants with beans naturally low in or almost devoid of caffeine. In the near future, coffee drinkers avoiding caffeine will have the choice between basically three Arabica coffees, namely decaffeinated by (a) selection and breeding, (b) genetic modification and (c) industrial extraction. Although only the last decaf coffee is available for the consumers, we believe that the size of the market of each type will occupy in the future depend on the price and health aspects related to the way the decaffeinated coffee beans are obtained.     

Projected Shifts in Coffea arabica Suitability among Major Global Producing Regions Due to Climate Change

Regional studies have shown that climate change will affect climatic suitability for Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) within current regions of production. Increases in temperature and changes in precipitation patterns will decrease yield, reduce quality and increase pest and disease pressure. This is the first global study on the impact of climate change on suitability to grow Arabica coffee. We modeled the global distribution of Arabica coffee under changes in climatic suitability by 2050s as projected by 21 global circulation models. The results suggest decreased areas suitable for Arabica coffee in Mesoamerica at lower altitudes. In South America close to the equator higher elevations could benefit, but higher latitudes lose suitability. Coffee regions in Ethiopia and Kenya are projected to become more suitable but those in India and Vietnam to become less suitable. Globally, we predict decreases in climatic suitability at lower altitudes and high latitudes, which may shift production among the major regions that produce Arabica coffee.     

Combined changes of process conditions improved aromatic properties of Vietnamese Robusta

The flavor and taste of coffee are affected by roasting conditions and extraction temperature. This study assessed changes in the flavors and tastes of coffee extracted from Vietnamese Robusta with different roasting times and temperatures, as well as different extraction temperatures. Vietnamese Robusta green beans were roasted for different times ranging from 5 to 20 min and at different temperatures ranging from 100 to 250°C. The roasted coffee was then extracted at five different temperatures ranging from 90 to 120°C. The coffee flavor was evaluated in terms of 5 key odorants: guaiacol; 4-ethylguaiacol; 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine; 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine, and 2-furfuryl. The taste of coffee was evaluated in terms of 6 main compounds that confer bitterness and sourness: caffeine, trigonelline, chlorogenic acid and citric acid, acetic acid, formic acid. The optimized roasting and extracting conditions were identified that 200 g of VN Robusta green beans, roasting at 230°C for 18 min, and then extracted with Espresso Machine at 110°C.     

2001: A Household Analysis of Huastec Maya Agriculture and Land Use at the Height of the Coffee Crisis

Over the last decade, historically low market prices for Coffea arabica have affected smallholder shade coffee-growing households throughout northern Latin America. In an effort to better understand household response to the coffee crisis and associated landscape changes, this paper examines agricultural production choices and land use patterns among Huastec Maya coffee-growing households. Using data compiled from 47 household interviews, I describe the cultural-geographical landscape in which the Huastec Maya land use system is embedded. In addition, I examine the economics of household production through a financial cost-benefit analysis and through an exploration of the relationship between land availability and land use patterns. Results show that economic inputs and returns from agriculture are highly variable, and that, in 2001, coffee cultivation was not a viable cash-generating strategy for most households. Land availability was found to have a significant effect on land use decisions, especially the proportion of land area devoted to fallow. Most importantly, however, the case study suggests that a purely economic approach does not suffice in explaining why the Huastec Maya continued to grow coffee in 2001, after years of low prices. Household production choices and livelihood strategies must also be viewed within a cultural context.     

Caffeine adsorption of montmorillonite in coffee extracts

The growth in health-conscious consumers continues to drive the demand for a wide variety of decaffeinated beverages. We previously developed a new technology using montmorillonite (MMT) in selective decaffeination of tea extract. This study evaluated and compared decaffeination of coffee extract using MMT and activated carbon (AC). MMT adsorbed caffeine without significant adsorption of caffeoylquinic acids (CQAs), feruloylquinic acids (FQAs), dicaffeoylquinic acids (di-CQAs), or caffeoylquinic lactones (CQLs). AC adsorbed caffeine, chlorogenic acids (CGAs) and CQLs simultaneously. The results suggested that the adsorption selectivity for caffeine in coffee extract is higher in MMT than AC. The caffeine adsorption isotherms of MMT in coffee extract fitted well to the Langmuir adsorption model. The adsorption properties in coffee extracts from the same species were comparable, regardless of roasting level and locality of growth. Our findings suggest that MMT is a useful adsorbent in the decaffeination of a wide range of coffee extracts.     

The storage of green coffee (Coffea arabica): decrease of viability and changes of potential aroma precursors

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: When green coffee is stored for a prolonged time the coffee quality decreases distinctively. Apart from well-known 'off-notes' that arise from undesired oxidations of lipids, a typical 'flattening' of the cup quality is detectable. In order to elucidate the biological causes for this phenomenon, differentially processed coffees (wet, dry, semi-dry processing), were stored under standard conditions for 2 years and analysed comprehensively. METHODS: Wet-processed coffee was stored either as parchment coffee, where the endocarp remained around the beans or as hulled beans. Viability of coffee seeds was estimated using the tetrazolium-test of seed viability. Changes in concentration of free amino acids and soluble carbohydrates were analysed by HPLC. KEY RESULTS: Whereas all other coffees lost viability within the first 6 months of storage, coffee beans stored within the parchment remained viable for >1 year. Glucose and fructose decreased slightly in the course of storage and glutamine content declined significantly. However, the changes observed in sugar and amino acid content were not correlated with the viability of the coffee beans. Consequently, neither typical metabolic reactions occurring within living cells nor characteristic post-mortem reactions could be responsible for the observed changes. As a result of post-mortem reactions in re-imbibed seeds, a characteristic bluish-green colour developed, putatively due to the oxidation of chlorogenic acids and subsequent reactions with primary amino compounds. This coloration might be an appropriate marker to substantiate if coffee seeds had been stored for an expanded time and putative quality losses were not relevant so far. CONCLUSIONS: It is suggested that loss of viability is relevant for the aroma flattening. As neither metabolic nor post-mortem reactions were responsible for the observed changes, it is concluded that Maillard reactions that occur during storage might be the cause of the decrease in potential aroma precursors.     

Spatial patterns and ecological drivers of historic piñon–juniper woodland expansion in the American southwest

Apparent changes in the local occurrence and regional extent of southwestern U.S. piñon–juniper woodlands since Euro‐American settlement (i.e. historic expansion) are widely reported. These changes are commonly attributed to rapid onset of intensive and unregulated livestock grazing in western rangelands beginning ca 1850. However, other potential drivers of historic expansion including climatic warming, biological inertia, elevated CO₂, and post‐disturbance successional recovery have also been noted. Landscape patterns of woodland expansion have not been well characterized, thus the magnitude, extent, and timing of historic change remains uncertain and the relative importance of ecological drivers difficult to assess. Previous work within a monsoonal north‐central New Mexico study area demonstrated the utility of logistic modeling to address these questions. Here I expand these efforts by sampling and modeling piñon‐juniper woodlands across a climatically variable four‐state area (i.e. New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and Utah). Using MARS, a piece‐wise linear procedure, I model occurrence of pre‐ versus post‐settlement aged stands in relation to environmental factors, predictively map woodland expansion patterns, and evaluate grazing versus other potential drivers of historic change. Pre‐settlement woodlands were most commonly found in upland settings consistent with previous work, although this relationship was less pronounced in winter moisture areas on the Colorado Plateau. Post‐settlement stands in contrast were typically associated with more productive valley‐terrace and toe‐slope settings. However, predicted extent of expansion regionally was largely restricted to summer moisture areas within the range of one‐seed juniper. This dichotomy, where historic expansion was directional into depositional settings atypical of pre‐settlement woodland occurrence supports the view of intensive grazing as a disruptive disturbance. However, the more limited expansion predicted for winter moisture areas suggests grazing effects were likely contingent on bio‐climatic context including ecological potential of different juniper species and affected sites.     

中国咖啡锈菌(Hemileia vastatrix)生理小种研究*

对我国云南、海南和广东咖啡植区收集到的58个咖啡锈菌菌株标本进行生理小种鉴定,鉴定出小种有7个。各咖啡植区除共同出现Ⅱ号生理小种外,云南咖啡植区还出现Ⅰ,XV,XXIII和XXIV号生理小种;海南则出现VI和XXII号小种;广东咖啡栽培地区未发现有新的生理小种。各咖啡植区新生成的生理小种种类有明显不同。     

Developments in coffee biotechnology—in vitro plant propagation and crop improvement

Coffee is an important plantation crop grown in about 80 countries across the globe. In recent years, coffee attained lot of attention in the biotechnology research area. Since last three decades, there has been a steady flow of information on coffee biotechnology and now it is entering into the genomic era. Major milestones in coffee biotech research are successful in vitro manipulation and multiplication of coffee, development of gene transfer protocols and generation of transgenic coffee plants with specific traits. The isolation of genes involved in caffeine biosynthetic pathway has opened up new avenues for generating caffeine free transgenic coffee. With the initiation of international coffee genomics initiatives, the genomic research in coffee is expected to reach new dimensions. The IPR issues may play crucial role in sharing of benefits during international collaborations in near future. This review focuses on the basic and applied aspects of coffee biotechnology for newer potentials.     

Introduced and indigenous fungi of the Ross Island historic huts and pristine areas of Antarctica

This review summarizes research concerning Antarctic fungi at the century-old historic huts of the Heroic Period of exploration in the Ross Dependency 1898?C1917 and fungi in pristine terrestrial locations. The motivation of the research was initially to identify potential fungal causes of degradation of the historic huts and artifacts. The research was extended to study fungal presence at pristine sites for comparison purposes and to consider the role of fungi in the respective ecosystems. We employed classical microbiology for isolation of viable organisms, and culture-independent DNA analyses. The research provided baseline data on microbial biodiversity. Principal findings were that there is significant overlap of the yeasts and filamentous fungi isolated from the historic sites, soil, and historic-introduced materials (i.e., wood, foodstuffs) and isolated from environmental samples in pristine locations. Aerial spore monitoring confirmed that winter spore counts were high and, in some cases, similar to those found in summer. Microbial diversity varied between the three Ross Island historic sites, and one historic site showed noticeably higher diversity, which led to the conclusion that this is a variable that should not be generalized. Cultured fungi were cold active, and the broader scientific significance of this finding was that climate change (warming) may not adversely affect these fungal species unless they were out-competed by new arrivals or unfavorable changes in ecosystem domination occur.     

Espresso coffee foam delays cooling of the liquid phase

Espresso coffee foam, called crema, is known to be a marker of the quality of espresso coffee extraction. However, the role of foam in coffee temperature has not been quantitatively clarified. In this study, we used an automatic machine for espresso coffee extraction. We evaluated whether the foam prepared using the machine was suitable for foam analysis. After extraction, the percentage and consistency of the foam were measured using various techniques, and changes in the foam volume were tracked over time. Our extraction method, therefore, allowed consistent preparation of high-quality foam. We also quantitatively determined that the foam phase slowed cooling of the liquid phase after extraction. High-quality foam plays an important role in delaying the cooling of espresso coffee.     

Effects of Shade‐Tree Species and Crop Structure on the Winter Arthropod and Bird Communities in a Jamaican Shade Coffee Plantation1

I examined the effects of two farm management variables, shade‐tree species and crop structure, on the winter (dry season) arthropod and bird communities in a Jamaican shade coffee plantation. Birds and canopy arthropods were more abundant in areas of the plantation shaded by the tree Inga vera than by Pseudalbizia berteroana. The abundance of arthropods (potential pests) on the coffee crop, however, was unaffected by shade‐tree species. Canopy arthropods, particularly psyllids (Homoptera), were especially abundant on Inga in late winter, when it was producing new leaves and nectar‐rich flowers. Insectivorous and nectarivorous birds showed the strongest response to Inga; thus the concentration of birds in Inga may be a response to abundant food. Coffee‐tree arthropod abundance was much lower than in the shade trees and was affected little by farm management variables, although arthropods tended to be more abundant in dense (unpruned) than open (recently pruned) areas of the plantation. Perhaps in response, leaf‐gleaning insectivorous birds were more abundant in dense areas. These results underscore that although some shade coffee plantations may provide habitat for arthropod and bird communities, differences in farm management practices can significantly affect their abundances. Furthermore, this study provides evidence suggesting that bird communities in coffee respond to spatial variation in arthropod availability. I conclude that /. vera is a better shade tree than P. berteroana, but a choice in crop structures is less clear due to changing effects of prune management over time.     

Effect of compositional modification of coffee on certain indices of lipid metabolism in healthy volunteers and patients with hyperlipoproteinemia]

An effect of a 14-day drinking of coffee on some blood serum indices of lipid metabolism was investigated in 20 healthy volunteers and 20 patients with hyper lipoproteinemia (type IIb). The study was carried out in two subgroups: healthy volunteers or patients with hyperlipoproteinemia assigned to the first subgroup drank ordinary coffee and patients assigned to the second subgroup drank coffee deprived of irritant substances (4 glasses daily). It was found that ordinary coffee significantly increased total serum cholesterol and decreased serum HDL-cholesterol in healthy volunteers. Such effects were not seen in subgroup drinking coffee deprived of irritant substances. More significant increase in serum total cholesterol and decrease in serum HDL-cholesterol were found in patients with hyperlipoproteinemia. Drinking of modified coffee does not cause any significant changes in serum lipid metabolism. The authors concluded that drinking of the ordinary coffee should be restricted in patients with hyperlipoproteinemia and use of coffee deprived of irritant substances might be recommended to patients with this disease.     

American Indians After A.D. 1492: A Case Study of Forced Culture Change

Perfect counterimages were created when Europeans and American Indians met for the first time in the late 15th century. Unfortunately, historic documents have preserved only one-half of the image. How did the survivors of epidemics, enslavements, and brutalities react to the disruptions in their lives brought about by trespassers from another continent? In this article I examine the historic and archeological evidence for migration into Florida as one of the strategies employed by the displaced people from the Caribbean Islands. The existing records are enhanced by archeological investigations at wet sites, such as Hontoon Island, where surviving biological materials offer information about environment, human skeletons, diet, technologies, and artistic creations in bone and wood that usually perish on dryland sites. At Hoonton Island, water-saturated strata that were not trampled or compressed after deposition revealed that the midden was composed of a prehistoric and an early historic component. The presence of a number of European artifacts led to the conclusion that the extensive changes documented in six of the seven categories of recovered material items resulted either from direct or indirect contact with Europeans or with Indians fleeing the Europeans. New designs on bone objects occur in the early historic period. I attempt to trace the source of one of these designs in an effort to determine the direction of flow for the changes. The use of trait lists to establish relationships is not popular but, in this instance, the investigation of a specific design is enlightening.     

BAC-end sequences analysis provides first insights into coffee (Coffea canephora P.) genome composition and evolution

Coffee is one of the world’s most important agricultural commodities. Coffee belongs to the Rubiaceae family in the euasterid I clade of dicotyledonous plants, to which the Solanaceae family also belongs. Two bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) libraries of a homozygous doubled haploid plant of Coffea canephora were constructed using two enzymes, HindIII and BstYI. A total of 134,827 high quality BAC-end sequences (BESs) were generated from the 73,728 clones of the two libraries, and 131,412 BESs were conserved for further analysis after elimination of chloroplast and mitochondrial sequences. This corresponded to almost 13 % of the estimated size of the C. canephora genome. 6.7 % of BESs contained simple sequence repeats, the most abundant (47.8 %) being mononucleotide motifs. These sequences allow the development of numerous useful marker sites. Potential transposable elements (TEs) represented 11.9 % of the full length BESs. A difference was observed between the BstYI and HindIII libraries (14.9 vs. 8.8 %). Analysis of BESs against known coding sequences of TEs indicated that 11.9 % of the genome corresponded to known repeat sequences, like for other flowering plants. The number of genes in the coffee genome was estimated at 41,973 which is probably overestimated. Comparative genome mapping revealed that microsynteny was higher between coffee and grapevine than between coffee and tomato or Arabidopsis. BESs constitute valuable resources for the first genome wide survey of coffee and provide new insights into the composition and evolution of the coffee genome.     

Evaluation of three composting systems for the management of spent coffee grounds

This study was conducted to evaluate the optimum composting approach for the management of spent coffee grounds from the restaurant and ready-to-serve coffee industry. Three composting systems were assessed, including in-vessel composting, vermicomposting bins, and aerated static pile bin composting, over study periods ranging from 47 to 98 days. Total carbon content was reduced by 5-7% in the spent coffee ground treatments across the three composting systems. Nitrogen and other mineral nutrient contents were conserved or enhanced from the initial to the final composts in all the composting systems assessed. Earthworm growth and survival (15-80%) was reduced in all the treatments but mortality rates were lower in coffee treatments with cardboard additions. A decline in earthworm mortality with cardboard additions was the result of reduced exposure to organic compounds and chemicals released through the decomposition of spent coffee grounds.     

Advances in coffee tissue culture and its practical applications

Genetic improvement of coffee, an important commercial crop, through classical breeding is slow and cumbersome. Biotechnology offers alternative strategies for generating new and improved coffee varieties, including those resistances to environmental extremes, pests, and diseases, low in caffeine, and with uniform fruit maturation. Large improvements in somatic embryogenesis, development of haploids, and scale-up of micropropagation have been accomplished in the last 5 yr. The recent identification of expressed sequence tags (EST) that are differentially expressed during the infestation of coffee plants by coffee leaf miners and the isolation and cloning of the promoter for the N-methyltransferase gene associated with caffeine production open up the possibility of producing varieties of coffee with new traits. This review provides a summary of in vitro biological advances and directions as to how they could be applied to improve the production and quality of coffee.