Characterization of cyanobacterial carotenoid ketolase CrtW and hydroxylase CrtR by complementation analysis in Escherichia coli

The pathway from beta-carotene to astaxanthin is a crucial step in the synthesis of astaxanthin, a red antioxidative ketocarotenoid that confers beneficial effects on human health. Two enzymes, a beta-carotene ketolase (carotenoid 4,4'-oxygenase) and a beta-carotene hydroxylase (carotenoid 3,3'-hydroxylase), are involved in this pathway. Cyanobacteria are known to utilize the carotenoid ketolase CrtW and/or CrtO, and the carotenoid hydroxylase CrtR. Here, we compared the catalytic functions of CrtW ketolases, which originated from Gloeobacter violaceus PCC 7421, Anabaena (also known as Nostoc) sp. PCC 7120 and Nostoc punctiforme PCC 73102, and CrtR from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 and Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413 by complementation analysis using recombinant Escherichia coli cells that synthesized various carotenoid substrates. The results demonstrated that the CrtW proteins derived from Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 as well as N. punctiforme PCC 73102 (CrtW148) can convert not only beta-carotene but also zeaxanthin into their 4,4'-ketolated products, canthaxanthin and astaxanthin, respectively. In contrast, the Anabaena CrtR enzymes were very poor in accepting either beta-carotene or canthaxanthin as substrates. By comparison, the Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 CrtR converted beta-carotene into zeaxanthin efficiently. We could assign the catalytic functions of the gene products involved in ketocarotenoid biosynthetic pathways in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 and N. punctiforme PCC 73102, based on the present and previous findings. This explains why these cyanobacteria cannot produce astaxanthin and why only Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 can produce zeaxanthin.     

Substrate specificities and availability of fucosyltransferase and beta-carotene hydroxylase for myxol 2'-fucoside synthesis in Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 compared with Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803

To elucidate the biosynthetic pathways of carotenoids, especially myxol 2'-glycosides, in cyanobacteria, Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 (also known as Nostoc sp. strain PCC 7120) and Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 deletion mutants lacking selected proposed carotenoid biosynthesis enzymes and GDP-fucose synthase (WcaG), which is required for myxol 2'-fucoside production, were analyzed. The carotenoids in these mutants were identified using high-performance liquid chromatography, field desorption mass spectrometry, and (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance. The wcaG (all4826) deletion mutant of Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 produced myxol 2'-rhamnoside and 4-ketomyxol 2'-rhamnoside as polar carotenoids instead of the myxol 2'-fucoside and 4-ketomyxol 2'-fucoside produced by the wild type. Deletion of the corresponding gene in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 (sll1213; 79% amino acid sequence identity with the Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 gene product) produced free myxol instead of the myxol 2'-dimethyl-fucoside produced by the wild type. Free myxol might correspond to the unknown component observed previously in the same mutant (H. E. Mohamed, A. M. L. van de Meene, R. W. Roberson, and W. F. J. Vermaas, J. Bacteriol. 187:6883-6892, 2005). These results indicate that in Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120, but not in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803, rhamnose can be substituted for fucose in myxol glycoside. The beta-carotene hydroxylase orthologue (CrtR, Alr4009) of Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 catalyzed the transformation of deoxymyxol and deoxymyxol 2'-fucoside to myxol and myxol 2'-fucoside, respectively, but not the beta-carotene-to-zeaxanthin reaction, whereas CrtR from Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 catalyzed both reactions. Thus, the substrate specificities or substrate availabilities of both fucosyltransferase and CrtR were different in these species. The biosynthetic pathways of carotenoids in Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 are discussed.     

General distribution of the nitrogen control gene ntcA in cyanobacteria.

The ntcA gene from Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7942 encodes a regulatory protein which is required for the expression of all of the genes known to be subject to repression by ammonium in that cyanobacterium. Homologs to ntcA have now been cloned by hybridization from the cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 and Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120. Sequence analysis has shown that these ntcA genes would encode polypeptides strongly similar (77 to 79% identity) to the Synechococcus NtcA protein. Sequences hybridizing to ntcA have been detected in the genomes of nine other cyanobacteria that were tested, including strains of the genera Anabaena, Calothrix, Fischerella, Nostoc, Pseudoanabaena, Synechococcus, and Synechocystis.     

细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶抑制剂Roscovitine对3种蓝藻生长和活性的影响

为了明确蓝藻中丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶的功能是否与调控细胞的生长分裂相关,以丝状鱼腥藻7120、单细胞集胞藻6803和聚球藻7002为对象,利用OD750光吸收测定和MTT方法研究了不同浓度丝氨酸苏氨酸激酶抑制剂roscovitine对其生长和脱氢酶活性的影响。结果表明:4 h roscovitine处理后对鱼腥藻7120和集胞藻6803生长量影响不大,对聚球藻7002的生长有促进作用。4 h roscovitine的处理对鱼腥藻7120有浓度依赖的显著抑制活性,对集胞藻6803的活性无影响,但是却促进聚球藻7002的活性。药物作用4 d后,7120的生长和活性均显著降低,并有浓度效应;6803的生长量较对照减少,但活性变化不明显;聚球藻7002的生长和活性均未受影响。显微观察结果显示,roscovitine对3种细胞形态没有影响,但药物作用4 d后的7120藻丝体较短。结果表明丝氨酸/苏氨酸抑制剂roscovitine影响丝状藻7120的生长和活性。     

Amino acid transport in taxonomically diverse cyanobacteria and identification of two genes encoding elements of a neutral amino acid permease putatively involved in recapture of leaked hydrophobic amino acids.

The activities of uptake of thirteen 14C-labeled amino acids were determined in nine cyanobacteria, including the unicellular strains Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7942 and Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803; the filamentous strain Pseudanabaena sp. strain PCC 6903, and the filamentous, heterocyst-forming strains Anabaena sp. strains PCC 7120 and PCC 7937; Nostoc sp. strains PCC 7413 and PCC 7107; Calothrix sp. strain PCC 7601 (which is a mutant unable to develop heterocysts); and Fischerella muscicola UTEX 1829. Amino acid transport mutants, selected as mutants resistant to some amino acid analogs, were isolated from the Anabaena, Nostoc, Calothrix, and Pseudanabaena strains. All of the tested cyanobacteria bear at least a neutral amino acid transport system, and some strains also bear transport systems specific for basic or acidic amino acids. Two genes, natA and natB, encoding elements (conserved component, NatA, and periplasmic binding protein, NatB) of an ABC-type permease for neutral amino acids were identified by insertional mutagenesis of strain PCC 6803 open reading frames from the recently published genomic DNA sequence of this cyanobacterium. DNA sequences homologous to natA and natB from strain PCC 6803 were detected by hybridization in eight cyanobacterial strains tested. Mutants unable to transport neutral amino acids, including natA and natB insertional mutants, accumulated in the extracellular medium a set of amino acids that always included Ala, Val, Phe, Ile, and Leu. A general role for a cyanobacterial neutral amino acid permease in recapture of hydrophobic amino acids leaked from the cells is suggested.     

Chemoheterotrophic Growth of the Cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. Strain PCC 7120 Dependent on a Functional Cytochrome c Oxidase

Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 is a filamentous cyanobacterium commonly used as a model organism for studying cyanobacterial cell differentiation and nitrogen fixation. For many decades, this cyanobacterium was considered an obligate photo-lithoautotroph. We now discovered that this strain is also capable of mixotrophic, photo-organoheterotrophic, and chemo-organoheterotrophic growth if high concentrations of fructose (at least 50 mM and up to 200 mM) are supplied. Glucose, a substrate used by some facultatively organoheterotrophic cyanobacteria, is not effective in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. The gtr gene from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 encoding a glucose carrier was introduced into Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. Surprisingly, the new strain containing the gtr gene did not grow on glucose but was very sensitive to glucose, with a 5 mM concentration being lethal, whereas the wild-type strain tolerated 200 mM glucose. The Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 strain containing gtr can grow mixotrophically and photo-organoheterotrophically, but not chemo-organoheterotrophically with fructose. Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 contains five respiratory chains ending in five different respiratory terminal oxidases. One of these enzymes is a mitochondrial-type cytochrome c oxidase. As in almost all cyanobacteria, this enzyme is encoded by three adjacent genes called coxBAC1. When this locus was disrupted, the cells lost the capability for chemo-organoheterotrophic growth.     

Isolation and functional characterization of Ca2+/H+ antiporters from cyanobacteria

Genome sequences of cyanobacteria, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, Anabaena sp. PCC 7120, and Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1 revealed the presence of a single Ca2+/H+ antiporter in these organisms. Here, we isolated the putative Ca2+/H+ antiporter gene from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 (synCAX) as well as a homologous gene from a halotolerant cyanobacterium Aphanothece halophytica (apCAX). In contrast to plant vacuolar CAXs, the full-length apCAX and synCAX genes complemented the Ca2+-sensitive phenotype of an Escherichia coli mutant. ApCAX and SynCAX proteins catalyzed specifically the Ca2+/H+ exchange reaction at alkaline pH. Immunological analysis suggested their localization in plasma membranes. The Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 cells disrupted of synCAX exhibited lower Ca2+ efflux activity and a salt-sensitive phenotype. Overexpression of ApCAX and SynCAX enhanced the salt tolerance of Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 cells. Mutagenesis analyses indicate the importance of two conserved acidic amino acid residues, Glu-74 and Glu-324, in the transmembrane segments for the exchange activity. These results clearly indicate that cyanobacteria contain a Ca2+/H+ antiporter in their plasma membranes, which plays an important role for salt tolerance.     

Analysis of the hli gene family in marine and freshwater cyanobacteria

Certain cyanobacteria thrive in natural habitats in which light intensities can reach 2000 micromol photon m(-2) s(-1) and nutrient levels are extremely low. Recently, a family of genes designated hli was demonstrated to be important for survival of cyanobacteria during exposure to high light. In this study we have identified members of the hli gene family in seven cyanobacterial genomes, including those of a marine cyanobacterium adapted to high-light growth in surface waters of the open ocean (Prochlorococcus sp. strain Med4), three marine cyanobacteria adapted to growth in moderate- or low-light (Prochlorococcus sp. strain MIT9313, Prochlorococcus marinus SS120, and Synechococcus WH8102), and three freshwater strains (the unicellular Synechocystis sp. strain PCC6803 and the filamentous species Nostoc punctiforme strain ATCC29133 and Anabaena sp. [Nostoc] strain PCC7120). The high-light-adapted Prochlorococcus Med4 has the smallest genome (1.7 Mb), yet it has more than twice as many hli genes as any of the other six cyanobacterial species, some of which appear to have arisen from recent duplication events. Based on cluster analysis, some groups of hli genes appear to be specific to either marine or freshwater cyanobacteria. This information is discussed with respect to the role of hli genes in the acclimation of cyanobacteria to high light, and the possible relationships among members of this diverse gene family.     

Extended heme promiscuity in the cyanobacterial cytochrome c oxidase: characterization of native complexes containing hemes A, O, and D, respectively.

The cyanobacteria Anacystis nidulans (Synechococcus sp. PCC6301), Synechocystis sp. PCC6803, Anabaena sp. PCC 7120, and Nostoc sp. PCC8009 were grown photoautotrophically under reduced oxygen tension in a medium with sulfate replaced by thiosulfate and nitrate replaced by ammonium as the S- and N-sources, respectively. In addition, Anabaena and Nostoc were grown under dinitrogen-fixing conditions in a medium free of combined nitrogen. Membranes were isolated from late-logarithmic cells (culture density corresponding to approximately 3 microliters packed cells per milliliter); cytoplasmic and thylakoid membranes were separated and purified according to established procedures. Acid-labile hemes were extracted from the membranes and subjected to reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Separated hemes were analyzed spectroscopically and identified by comparison with authentic standards. In addition to hemes B, A, and O, the latter of which was induced under semianaerobic conditions only, substitution of thiosulfate and ammonium for the oxy-anions sulfate and nitrate led to the appearance of spectrally discernible heme D in the membranes and extracts therefrom. However, spectroscopic and kinetic investigation of the membrane-bound heme D rather disproved any reaction with oxygen or carbon monoxide. Kinetic measurements performed with the membrane-bound respiratory oxidase gave evidence for only two kinetically competent terminal oxidases, a3 and o3, both apparently associated with a single type of apoprotein, viz. subunit I of the known cyanobacterial aa3-type cytochrome c oxidase. The heme D, on the other hand, seems to form a spectrally distinguished, yet kinetically ill-defined hemoprotein complex which does not qualify as a fully functional d-type terminal oxidase on our (wild-type) cyanobacteria even after growth under semianaerobic pseudo-reducing conditions. Also growth (of Anabaena and Nostoc) under dinitrogen-fixing conditions did not change this situation. Thus, we are left with (wild-type) cyanobacteria forming an unbranched respiratory chain with only a single type of terminal oxidase protein, viz. the known aa3-type cytochrome c oxidase. This oxidase, however, may incorporate different prosthetic (heme) groups in the sense of "heme promiscuity." Biosynthesis of the different heme groups thereby seems to respond to the ambient redox environment. In particular, however, conditions for expression of the two quinol oxidases potentially and additionally coded for by the genome of, e. g., Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 (see http://www.kazusa.or.jp/cyano), have not yet been found.     

Computational protein structure modeling and analysis of UV-B stress protein in Synechocystis PCC 6803

This study focuses on Ultra Violet stress (UVS) gene product which is a UV stress induced protein from cyanobacteria, Synechocystis PCC 6803. Three dimensional structural modeling of target UVS protein was carried out by homology modeling method. 3F2I pdb from Nostoc sp. PCC 7120 was selected as a suitable template protein structure. Ultimately, the detection of active binding regions was carried out for characterization of functional sites in modeled UV-B stress protein. The top five probable ligand binding sites were predicted and the common binding residues between target and template protein was analyzed. It has been validated for the first time that modeled UVS protein structure from Synechocystis PCC 6803 was structurally and functionally similar to well characterized UVS protein of another cyanobacterial species, Nostoc sp PCC 7120 because of having same structural motif and fold with similar protein topology and function. Investigations revealed that UVS protein from Synechocystis sp. might play significant role during ultraviolet resistance. Thus, it could be a potential biological source for remediation for UV induced stress.     

Only plant-type (GLYK) glycerate kinases produce d-glycerate 3-phosphate

d-Glycerate kinases (GK) occur in three phylogenetically distinct classes. Class II GKs produce glycerate 2-phosphate, while both class I GK and class III GK (GLYK) are thought to produce glycerate 3-phosphate. We report on the identification of a bacterial-type class I GK in the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 and of a plant-type GLYK in the filamentous cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. strain PCC 7120. The comparison with other prokaryotic and eukaryotic GKs of both classes shows that glycerate 3-phosphate is produced only by the GLYKs, but, in contrast to current thinking, not by any of the examined class I enzymes.     

Evolution of sucrose synthesis

Cyanobacteria and proteobacteria (purple bacteria) are the only prokaryotes known to synthesize sucrose (Suc). Suc-P synthase, Suc-phosphatase (SPP), and Suc synthase activities have previously been detected in several cyanobacteria, and genes coding for Suc-P synthase (sps) and Suc synthase (sus) have been cloned from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and Anabaena (Nostoc) spp., respectively. An open reading frame in the Synechocystis genome encodes a predicted 27-kD polypeptide that shows homology to the maize (Zea mays) SPP. Heterologous expression of this putative spp gene in Escherichia coli, reported here, confirmed that this open reading frame encodes a functional SPP enzyme. The Synechocystis SPP is highly specific for Suc-6(F)-P (K(m) = 7.5 microM) and is Mg(2+) dependent (K(a) = 70 microM), with a specific activity of 46 micromol min(-1) mg(-1) protein. Like the maize SPP, the Synechocystis SPP belongs to the haloacid dehalogenase superfamily of phosphatases/hydrolases. Searches of sequenced microbial genomes revealed homologs of the Synechocystis sps gene in several other cyanobacteria (Nostoc punctiforme, Prochlorococcus marinus strains MED4 and MIT9313, and Synechococcus sp. WH8012), and in three proteobacteria (Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, Magnetococcus sp. MC1, and Nitrosomonas europaea). Homologs of the Synechocystis spp gene were found in Magnetococcus sp. MC1 and N. punctiforme, and of the Anabaena sus gene in N. punctiforme and N. europaea. From analysis of these sequences, it is suggested that Suc synthesis originated in the proteobacteria or a common ancestor of the proteobacteria and cyanobacteria.     

Hydrogenases in Nostoc sp. Strain PCC 73102, a Strain Lacking a Bidirectional Enzyme

The present study was carried out in order to examine and characterize the bidirectional hydrogenase in the cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. strain PCC 73102. Southern hybridizations with the probes Av1 and Av3 (hoxY and hoxH, bidirectional hydrogenase small and large subunits, respectively) revealed the occurrence of corresponding sequences in Anabaena variabilis (control), Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120, and Nostoc muscorum but not in Nostoc sp. strain PCC 73102. As a control, hybridizations with the probe hup2 (hupL, uptake hydrogenase large subunit) demonstrated the presence of a corresponding gene in all the cyanobacteria tested, including Nostoc sp. strain PCC 73102. Moreover, with three different growth media, a bidirectional enzyme that was functional in vivo was observed in N. muscorum, Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120, and A. variabilis, whereas Nostoc sp. strain PCC 73102 consistently lacked any detectable in vivo activity. Similar results were obtained when assaying for the presence of an enzyme that is functional in vitro. Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by in situ hydrogenase activity staining was used to demonstrate the presence or absence of a functional enzyme. Again, bands corresponding to hydrogenase activity were observed for N. muscorum, Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120, and A. variabilis but not for Nostoc sp. strain PCC 73102. In conclusion, we were unable to detect a bidirectional hydrogenase in Nostoc sp. strain PCC 73102 with specific physiological and molecular techniques. The same techniques clearly showed the presence of an inducible bidirectional enzyme and corresponding structural genes in N. muscorum, Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120, and A. variabilis. Hence, Nostoc sp. strain PCC 73102 seems to be an unusual cyanobacterium and an interesting candidate for future biotechnological applications.     

From genome to enzyme: analysis of key glycolytic and oxidative pentose-phosphate pathway enzymes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Activities of glucokinase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, phosphoglucose isomerase, phosphofructokinase (PFK), enolase, pyruvate kinase (PK) and phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase were determined in extracts of photoautotrophic, mixotrophic, and heterotrophic cultures of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Annotated genomes of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 were analyzed for the respective predicted physical properties of each enzyme investigated here. Enzymatic activity was largely unaffected by nutritional mode, with the exception of glucokinase and PK whose activities were significantly elevated in heterotrophic cultures of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. PFK activity was insensitive to bacterial PFK-A (allosteric) effectors such as PEP, implying that Synechocystis PFK should be classified as a PFK-B (non-allosteric). Immunoblot and kinetic studies indicated that irrespective of nutritional mode, the Synechocystis PK corresponds to a PK-A (AMP activated) rather than PK-F (fructose-1,6-bisphosphate activated).     

集胞藻PCC6803中S2P同源蛋白Slr0643及Sll0862 金属蛋白酶活性的体外鉴定

【目的】金属蛋白酶S2P在细菌中通过在膜切割转录调控因子、释放δ因子参与胁迫响应是跨膜信号转导的保守机制,但蓝细菌中S2P的功能还未被鉴定,故我们考察集胞藻PCC6803中的S2P同源蛋白Slr0643及Sll0862的金属蛋白酶活性。【方法】以pET-30b(+)为载体,分别构建重组质粒pF0643和pF0862,在大肠杆菌BL21(CE3)中诱导表达并纯化Slr0643及Sll0862蛋白,以β-酪蛋白为底物检测重组蛋白的酶活性。【结果】体外酶活实验显示重组表达的Slr0643及Sll0862蛋白有内切蛋白酶活性,且其活性受金属螯合剂o-phenanthroline的抑制。体外酶活的鉴定结果为进一步研究Slr0643和Sll0862的体内酶活和生物学功能奠定了基础。【结论】集胞藻PCC6803中的S2P同源蛋白Slr0643及Sll0862具有金属蛋白酶活性。     

Enhanced poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate accumulation in a unicellular cyanobacterium, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

AIM: To stimulate poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) accumulation in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 by manipulating culture conditions. METHODS AND RESULTS: Stationary phase cultures of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 were subjected to N- and P-deficiency, chemoheterotrophy and limitations of gas-exchange. Enhanced PHB accumulation was observed under all the above conditions. However, interaction of P-deficiency with gas-exchange limitation (GEL) in the presence of exogenous carbon boosted PHB accumulation maximally. CONCLUSIONS: Combined effects of P-deficiency and GEL boosted PHB accumulation up to 38% (w/w) of dry cell weight (dcw) in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 in the presence of fructose and acetate. This value is about eightfold higher as compared with the accumulation under photoautotrophic growth condition. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY: These results showed a good potential of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 in accumulating poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate, an appropriate raw material for biodegradable and biocompatible plastic. Poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate could be an important material for plastic and pharmaceutical industries.     

The slow S to M fluorescence rise in cyanobacteria is due to a state 2 to state 1 transition

In dark-adapted plants and algae, chlorophyll a fluorescence induction peaks within 1s after irradiation due to well documented photochemical and non-photochemical processes. Here we show that the much slower fluorescence rise in cyanobacteria (the so-called "S to M rise" in tens of seconds) is due to state 2 to state 1 transition. This has been demonstrated in particular for Synechocystis PCC6803, using its RpaC(-) mutant (locked in state 1) and its wild-type cells kept in hyperosmotic suspension (locked in state 2). In both cases, the inhibition of state changes correlates with the disappearance of the S to M fluorescence rise, confirming its assignment to the state 2 to state 1 transition. The general physiological relevance of the SM rise is supported by its occurrence in several cyanobacterial strains: Synechococcus (PCC 7942, WH 5701) and diazotrophic single cell cyanobacterium (Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142). We also show here that the SM fluorescence rise, and also the state transition changes are less prominent in filamentous diazotrophic cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. (PCC 7120) and absent in phycobilisome-less cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus marinus PCC 9511. Surprisingly, it is also absent in the phycobiliprotein rod containing Acaryochloris marina (MBIC 11017). All these results show that the S to M fluorescence rise reflects state 2 to state 1 transition in cyanobacteria with phycobilisomes formed by rods and core parts. We show that the pronounced SM fluorescence rise may reflect a protective mechanism for excess energy dissipation in those cyanobacteria (e.g. in Synechococcus PCC 7942) that are less efficient in other protective mechanisms, such as blue light induced non-photochemical quenching. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosynthesis Research for Sustainability: from Natural to Artificial.