Somatodendritic serotonin release and re-uptake in mouse embryonic stem cell-derived serotonergic neurons

Serotonergic neurotransmission plays an important role during neural development. Serotonergic dysfunction is observed in various psychiatric disorders and many psychoactive drugs target proteins on serotonergic neurons. Serotonergic neurons are located in the raphé nuclei and densely innervate the whole brain. The low number and the intricate accessibility of these neurons do not allow to culture them and therefore to date it was impossible to study drug-target interactions on bona fide serotonergic neurons. In order to circumvent such problems we have developed a protocol that allows the rapid and efficient generation of serotonergic neurons from mouse embryonic stem cells. Neuronal precursors were obtained by neuronal stem sphere formation in floating culture in the presence of various mitogens. Differentiation into neurons was induced by withdrawal of the mitogens. About 90% of the resulting neurons exhibited a serotonergic phenotype as judged by immunostaining against serotonin, its synthesising enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase 2, the serotonin transporter as well as 5-HT1(A) and 5-HT1(B) autoreceptors. In addition, we found expression of the vesicular monoamine transporter vMAT2 and the presynaptic protein Bassoon, which is involved in organizing the assembly of the presynaptic active zone. Depolarisation-induced calcium influx was visualised by Fluo-4, and accompanying exocytotic events by FM dye staining. Proteins involved in 5-HT release and re-uptake as well as depolarisation evoked exocytosis were evenly co-distributed on neurites and cell bodies suggesting that ES cell-derived serotonergic neurons also exhibit somatodendritic release comparable to serotonergic neurons in the raphé nuclei.     

Monitoring and visualising plant cuticles by confocal laser scanning microscopy

The present work shows the visualisation of phenolics and flavonoids of plant cuticles by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Selected isolated fruit and leaf cuticles were monitored on the basis of autofluorescent phenolics and flavonoids which, in most cases, permitted us to obtain three-dimensional images of the cuticular membranes. The utility of this technique in investigations of cuticular translocation and diffusion of exogenous applied chemicals and cuticle degradation has also been explored.     

Visualization of alginate-poly-L-lysine-alginate microcapsules by confocal laser scanning microscopy

Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was used to study the distribution of polymers and cross-linking ions in alginate-poly-L-lysine (PLL) -alginate microcapsules made by fluorescent-labeled polymers. CLSM studies of Ca-alginate gel beads made in the presence and absence of non-gelling sodium ions revealed a more inhomogeneous distribution of alginate in beads formed in the absence of non-gelling ions. In the formation of alginate-PLL capsules, the polymer gradients in the preformed gel core were destabilized by the presence of non-gelling ions in the washing step and in the PLL solution. Ca-alginate gels preserved the inhomogeneous structure by exposure to ion-free solution in contrast to exposure to non-gelling ions (Na(+)). By exchanging Ca(2+) with Ba(2+) (10 mM), extremely inhomogeneous gel beads were formed that preserved their structure during the washing and exposure to PLL in saline. PLL was shown to bind at the very surface of the alginate core, forming a shell-like membrane. The thickness of the PLL-layer increased about 100% after 2 weeks of storage, but no further increase was seen after 2 years of storage. The coating alginate was shown to overlap the PLL layer. No difference in binding could be observed among coating alginates of different composition. This paper shows an easy and novel method to study the distribution of alginate and PLL in intact microcapsules. As the labeling procedures are easy to perform, the method can also be used for a variety of other polymers in other microencapsulation systems.     

Structural analysis of microparticles by confocal laser scanning microscopy

This study demonstrates the potential of conforcal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) as a characterization tool for different types of microparticles. Microparticles were prepared by various methods including complex coacervation, spray drying, double emulsion solvent evaporation technique, and ionotropic gelation. Protein drugs and particle wall polymers were covalently labeled with a fluorescent marker prior to particle preparation, while low molecular weight drugs were labeled by mixing with a fluorescent marker of similar solubility properties. As was demonstrated in several examples, CLSM allowed visualization of the polymeric particle wall composition and detection of heterogeneous polymer distribution or changes in polymer matrix composition under the influence of the drug. Furthermore, CLSM provides a method for three-dimensional reconstruction and image analysis of the microparticles by imaging several coplanar sections throughout the object. In conclusion, CLSM allows the inspection of internal particle structures without prior sample destruction. It can be used to localize the encapsulated compounds and to detect special structural details of the particle wall composition.     

Principles and practices of laser scanning confocal microscopy

The laser scanning confocal microscope (LSCM) is an essential tool for many biomedical imaging applications at the level of the light microscope. The basic principles of confocal microscopy and the evolution of the LSCM into today's sophisticated instruments are outlined. The major imaging modes of the LSCM are introduced including single optical sections, multiple wavelength images, three-dimensional reconstructions, and living cell and tissue sequences. Practical aspects of specimen preparation, image collection, and image presentation are included along with a primer on troubleshooting the LSCM for the novice.     

Power and limits of laser scanning confocal microscopy

In confocal microscopy, the object is illuminated and observed so as to rid the resulting image of the light from out-of-focus planes. Imaging may be performed in the reflective or in the fluorescence mode. Confocal microscopy allows accurate and nondestructive optical sectioning in a plane perpendicular or parallel to the optical axis of the microscope. Further digital three-dimensional treatments of the data may be performed so as to visualize the specimen from a variety of angles. Several examples illustrating each of these possibilities are given. Three-dimensional reconstitution of nuclear components using a cubic representation and a ray-tracing based method are also given. Instrumental and experimental factors can introduce some bias into the acquisition of the 3-D data set: self-shadowing effects of thick specimens, spherical aberrations due to the sub-optimum use of the objective lenses and photobleaching processes. This last phenomenon is the one that most heavily hampers the quantitative analysis needed for 3-D reconstruction. We delineate each of these problems and indicate to what extent they can be solved. Some tips are given for the practice of confocal microscope and image recovery: how to determine empirically the thickness of the optical slices, how to deal with extreme contrasts in an image, how to prevent artificial flattening of the specimens. Finally, future prospects in the field are outlined. Particular mention of the use of pulsed lasers is made as they may be an alternative to UV-lasers and a possible means to attenuate photodamage to biological specimens.     

Three-dimensional imaging of monogenoidean sclerites by laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy

A nondestructive protocol for preparing specimens of Monogenoidea for both alpha-taxonomic studies and reconstruction of 3-dimensional structure is presented. Gomori's trichrome, a stain commonly used to prepare whole-mount specimens of monogenoids for taxonomic purposes, is used to provide fluorescence of genital spines, the copulatory organ, accessory piece, squamodisc, anchors, hooks, bars, and clamps under laser scanning confocal microscopy.     

Actin microridges characterized by laser scanning confocal and atomic force microscopy

We have characterized the cell surface of zebrafish stratified epithelium using a combined approach of light and atomic force microscopy under conditions which simulate wound healing. Microridges rise on average 100 nm above the surface of living epithelial cells, which correlate to bundles of cytochalasin B-insensitive actin filaments. Time-lapse microscopy revealed the bundles to form a highly dynamic network on the cell surface, in which bundles and junctions were severed and annealed on a time scale of minutes. Atomic force microscopy topographs further indicated that actin bundle junctions identified were of two types: overlaps and integrated end to side T- and Y-junctions. The surface bundle network is found only on the topmost cell layer of the explant, and never on individual locomoting cells. Possible functions of these actin bundles include cell compartmentalization of the cell surface, resistance to mechanical stress, and F-actin storage.     

Quantification of extracellular polymeric substances in biofilms by confocal laser scanning microscopy

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) in a biofilm were quantified by measuring the total cell volume from a 3-D image of the biofilm using confocal laser scanning microscope after staining cells with a fluorescent dye specific for nucleic acids. The EPS content was the difference between the volatile solids in the biofilm and the total cell mass, which could be quantified from the measured cell volume.     

Monitoring of biofilms grown on differentially structured metallic surfaces using confocal laser scanning microscopy

Imaging of biofilms on opaque surfaces is a challenge presented to researchers especially considering pathogenic bacteria, as those typically grow on living tissue, such as mucosa and bone. However, they can also grow on surfaces used in industrial applications such as food production, acting as a hindrance to the process. Thus, it is important to understand bacteria better in the environment they actually have relevance in. Stainless steel and titanium substrata were line structured and dotted surface topographies for titanium substrata were prepared to analyze their effects on biofilm formation of a constitutively green fluorescent protein (GFP)‐expressing Escherichia coli strain. The strain was batch cultivated in a custom built flow cell initially for 18 h, followed by continuous cultivation for 6 h. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was used to determine the biofilm topography. Biofilm growth of E. coli GFPmut2 was not affected by the type of metal substrate used; rather, attachment and growth were influenced by variable shapes of the microstructured titanium surfaces. In this work, biofilm cultivation in flow cells was coupled with the most widely used biofilm analytical technique (CLSM) to study the time course of growth of a GFP‐expressing biofilm on metallic surfaces without intermittent sampling or disturbing the natural development of the biofilm.     

Localization of cerium-based reaction products by scanning laser reflectance confocal microscopy

Scanning laser confocal microscopy was utilized to visualize sites of hydrogen peroxide release from stimulated neutrophils and lysosomal acid phosphatase in these and other cells using cerium in the detection systems. Imaging of the cerium-containing reactions was achieved by employing the reflectance mode of this instrument. Localization of these products at the light microscope level was direct and did not require other reactions to generate a visible product. This new approach to cerium cytochemistry should prove useful for many applications.     

Tissue localization of phenolic compounds in plants by confocal laser scanning microscopy

Phenolic compounds are involved in many interactions of plants with their biotic and abiotic environment. These substances accumulate in different plant tissues and cells during ontogenesis and under the influence of various environmental stimuli, respectively. Studies on the tissue localization of phenolic compounds provide a fundamental prerequisite for understanding the ecological functions of these compounds. The present work shows the localization of various phenolics in cell walls, vacuoles, and associated with cell nuclei, in leaves of a monocotyledonous and a dicotyledonous plant, in a gymnosperm as well as in rhizomes of a horsetail by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Using fresh plant material, it compares in detail the tissue localization of autofluorescent styrylpyrones and hydroxycinnamic acids and the visualization of epidermal flavonoid compounds using shift reagents like ammonia, and fluorescence-inducing reagents like Naturstoffreagenz A (diphenyl-boric acid 2-aminoethyl ester). The comparison of microscopic data obtained from different plant species shows the advantages and limitations of confocal laser scanning microscopy in ecological biochemistry of phenolic plant metabolites.     

Improved detection of in situ hybridization by laser scanning confocal microscopy.

Laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) offers a significant improvement over conventional bright-field and dark-field light microscopy for producing images of silver grains in autoradiograms of specimens prepared by in situ hybridization. The out-of-focus image of the background silver grains present in the emulsion is eliminated from the in-focus image of the radioactive probe associated with the cells by optical sectioning with the LSCM operated in a reflected light mode. The improved images produced by the LSCM provide a significant increase in the sensitivity of detecting positively labeled cells and tissues prepared by in situ hybridization. The power of this detection method is demonstrated using samples of HIV-infected human peripheral blood cells, tissue sections of human placenta and human skin. It is anticipated that the method can be universally applied to samples prepared by in situ hybridization techniques.     

Osmotic water permeability measurements using confocal laser scanning microscopy

 We have developed a method for measurement of plasma membrane water permeability (P _f) in intact cells using laser scanning confocal microscopy. The method is based on confocal recording of the fluorescence intensity emitted by calcein-loaded adherent cells during osmotic shock. P _f is calculated as a function of the time constant in the fluorescence intensity change, the cell surface-to-volume ratio and the fractional content of the osmotically active cell volume. The method has been applied to the measurement of water permeability in MDCK cells. The cells behaved as linear osmometers in the interval from 100 to 350 mosM. About 57% of the total cell volume was found to be osmotically inactive. Water movement across the plasma membrane in intact MDCK cells was highly temperature dependent. HgCl₂ had no effect on water permeability, while amphotericin B and DMSO significantly increased P _f values. The water permeability in MDCK cells transfected with aquaporin 2 was an order of magnitude higher than in the intact MDCK cell line. The water permeability of the nuclear membrane in both cell lines was found to be unlimited. Thus the intranuclear fluid belongs to the osmotically active portion of the cell. We conclude that the use of confocal microscopy provides a sensitive and reproducible method for measurement of water permeability in different types of adherent cells and potentially for coverslip-attached tissue preparations. Received: 12 June 1999 / Revised version: 21 February 2000 / Accepted: 25 February 2000     

Use of UV excitation in confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscopy

By making only minor modifications, we adapted a conventional confocal beam-scanning laser microscope for the recording of UV-excited fluorescence. The major, and most expensive, change is that we coupled an external UV argon ion laser, providing the wavelengths 334, 351 and 364 nm, to the microscope scanner. We also replaced some optical components to obtain improved transmission and reflection properties in the UV. Only easily obtainable and inexpensive off-the-shelf components were used. The most serious problem encountered was the chromatic aberration of the microscope objective when using both UV and visible wavelengths. This is of no consequence in conventional microscopy where good imaging properties are important only in the visible region. In confocal microscopy on the other hand, good imaging properties are necessary for both the exciting and fluorescent light. Rather than having new optics designed, we tried with simple means to reduce the effects of the chromatic aberration to a tolerable level. This was done by mechanical adjustments in the ray-path. In addition we also tested two mirror objectives, which are inherently free from chromatic aberrations. However, such objectives have rather limited numerical apertures and are not of the immersion type. Their value in biomedical applications is therefore limited.The objective most frequently used in our experiments was a 63/1.25 oil-immersion fluorite. Without any compensation this objective had a depth resolution in UV-excited confocal fluorescence that was an order of magnitude worse than when using visible-light excitation. The useful field of view was also very small due to lateral chromatic aberration. By simple means we managed to improve the depth resolution by a factor of 4.4, and at the same time increase the useful field of view substantially. Still, the depth resolution was worse than what is obtained using visible light excitation. We think this is due to the fact that after compensation the objective is working with an incorrect tube length.Using the modified instrument, we recorded specimens labelled with AMCA and Fluoro-Gold, obtaining 1.5 μm thick optical sections.     

Improved double immunofluorescence for confocal laser scanning microscopy.

Reliable double immunofluorescence labeling for confocal laser scanning microscopy requires good separation of the signals generated by the fluorochromes. We have successfully overcome the limitation of a single argon ion laser in achieving effective excitation of dyes with well-separated emission spectra by employing the novel sulfonated rhodamine fluorochromes designated Alexa 488 and Alexa 568. The more abundant antigen was visualized using the red-emitting Alexa 568, with amplification of the signal by a biotinylated bridging antibody and labeled streptavidin. This was combined with the green-emitting Alexa 488, which yielded brighter images than fluorescein but exhibited comparable photodegradation. With appropriate controls to ensure the absence of crosstalk between fluorescence channels, these dyes permitted unequivocal demonstration of co-localization. This combination of fluorochromes may also offer advantages for users of instruments equipped with alternative laser systems.     

Neuropeptide co-localisation in the lepidopteran frontal ganglion studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy

A comparative study of the co-localisation of three different families of neuropeptides, viz. allatostatins of the Y/FXFGL-NH(2) type, Manduca sexta allatostatin (Mas-AS) and allatotropin, in the frontal ganglion of lepidopteran larvae has been carried out by means of immunocytochemistry and confocal laser scanning microscopy. The simultaneous application of three types of fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies reveals triple co-localisation in an anterodorsal pair of neurones in the frontal ganglion of the noctuids Heliothis virescens and Lacanobia oleracea. There is no evidence of differential axonal transport, since all parts of these neurones show complete co-localisation of all three peptides. Prominent axons of the ganglionic neurones project in the recurrent nerve to the foregut and stomodeal valve. Over the crop, lateral and sub-lateral branches follow the course of circular muscle fibres and terminate in varicosities. All three neuropeptides have previously been shown to be myoregulatory on the foregut; the Y/FXFGL-NH(2) allatostatins and Mas-AS are inhibitory, whereas allatotropin is excitatory. The morphological evidence of co-localisation of physiologically antagonistic peptides within the same terminals suggests that an extremely complex mechanism controls the contractile activities of the foregut. A posterodorsal pair of neurones in the frontal ganglion have prominent axons projecting via the frontal connectives to the brain and in the recurrent nerve to the stomodeal valve where extensive branching suggests control over the valve movements. Studies of another noctuid, Spodoptera frugiperda, and the sphingid, M. sexta, show interesting variations in the co-localisation phenomenon.     

Rotifer muscles as revealed by phalloidin-TRITC staining and confocal scanning laser microscopy

By combining phalloidin‐TRITC staining with confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM), the pattern of the musculature in two species of Rotifera, Euchlanis dilatata unisetata and Brachionus quadridentatus is revealed. The same general muscle pattern prevails in both species. The major components of the body wall musculature are: 1. retractor muscles (5 pairs in E. dilatata unisetata and 3 pairs in B. quadridentatus); 2. Two pairs of dorso‐ventral muscles; 3. Two pairs of perpendicular muscles (in E. dilatata unisetata); 4. retractors of the corona (median, lateral and ventral); 5. Foot retractors. In addition, three pairs of cutaneo‐visceral muscles and visceral muscles (including mastax muscles) are described. The sphincter of the corona was found only in B. quadridentatus. The high degree of muscle differentiation points to a high level of development of rotifer muscular system.