Are all risk perceptions created equal? Comparing general risk assessments and specific risk assessments associated with climate change

For policy-making to address public risk perceptions effectively, policy-makers must have a clear understanding of the nature of public risks. Public opinion polls regularly solicit perceptions of risk toward a variety of topics. These assessments, though, tend to be general with no specificity offered for a nuanced interpretation. Yet, there is good reason to assume that risk perceptions are not based on the same criteria. If true, policy-makers may be unable to address risks adequately without a better understanding of the drivers of risk perceptions. This project focuses on two primary research questions: (1) Does the public weigh the risk associated with global climate change differently in specific sub-domains? (2) If so, which climate change sub-domains are various members of the public most concerned about when offering a general assessment of global climate change risk? We assess public risk perceptions of climate change in three sub-domains—public health, economic development, and environment—and find that two of the three sub-domains are predictors of a general assessment of risk.     

Mercury Exposure and Risks from Dental Amalgam in Canada: The Canadian Health Measures Survey 2007–2009

Dental amalgam is 50% metallic mercury (Hg⁰) by weight and causes Hg exposure. The first assessment of Hg exposure and risk from dental amalgam in Canada was published in 1996. Recent data provided the opportunity to update that assessment. During the Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS; 2007 to 2009) the number of tooth surfaces specifically restored with dental amalgam was recorded. Data were also collected on the concentration of Hg in urine of survey participants. These data were employed to determine Hg exposures in the Canadian population. Also determined was the number of amalgam-restored tooth surfaces that would not result in exposure exceeding the dose associated with Canada's reference exposure level (REL) for Hg⁰. Based on the CHMS data, 17.7 million Canadians aged ≥6 years collectively carry 191.1 million amalgam surfaces, representing 76.4 million amalgam-restored teeth. Average Hg exposures were: Children—0.065 μg Hg/kg-day; Teens—0.032 μg/kg-day; Adults—0.033 μg/kg-day; and Seniors—0.041 μg/kg-day. Of Canadians with dental amalgam restorations, 80.4% experience a daily dose of Hg that exceeds the Canadian REL-associated dose. The number of amalgam surfaces that will not result in exceeding the REL-associated dose varied from two amalgam surfaces (children, both sexes) to seven surfaces (adult males).     

Factors Related to Preferences for Trap-Neuter–Release Management of Feral Cats Among Illinois Homeowners

ABSTRACT Populations of feral domestic cats have increased throughout the United States, affecting wildlife and warranting attention from a variety of management agencies. This contentious issue requires a greater understanding of public attitudes and preferences for population control. We used data from a 2004 mail survey of Illinois, USA, homeowners’ attitudes towards wildlife and conservation to investigate support for the trap-neuter–release (TNR) of feral cats and to examine factors (demographic, experience, and wildlife values orientations) that may influence preference for TNR as a management option. Age, gender, and wildlife rights values orientations were significant predictors of preference for TNR, while negative experiences with feral cats were correlated with preferences for management options other than TNR. Investigations of public perceptions of feral cat management can help wildlife managers understand the growing public debate regarding feral cat management and provide appropriate input and educational materials regarding cat management and wildlife.     

Spotlight surveys for white-tailed deer: Monitoring panacea or exercise in futility?

Many monitoring programs for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on both private and public lands across the United States have long relied on the use of road-based spotlight surveys for monitoring population size and trends. Research has suggested spotlight surveys are ineffective and that road-based surveys for deer are biased because of highly variable detection rates. To evaluate variability in detection rates relative to the assumption that repeated surveys along roads will provide reliable trend data for use in calculating deer density estimates, we collected 5 years of thermal-imager and spotlight survey data using a multiple-observer, closed-capture approach. Using a Huggin's closed capture model, data bootstrapping, and variance components analyses, our results suggest that density estimates for white-tailed deer generated from data collected during road-based spotlight surveys are likely not reflective of the standing deer population. Detection probabilities during individual spotlight surveys ranged from 0.00 to 0.80 (median = 0.45) across all surveys, and differed by observer, survey, management unit, and survey transect replicate. Mean spotlight detection probability (0.41) and process standard deviation (0.12) estimates indicated considerable variability across surveys, observers, transects, and years, which precludes the generation of a correction factor or use of spotlight data to evaluate long-term trends at any scale. Although recommended by many state, federal, and non-governmental agencies, our results suggest that the benefit of spotlight survey data for monitoring deer populations is limited and likely represents a waste of resources with no appreciable management information gained. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Predicting response to reassurances and uncertainties in bioterrorism communications for urban populations in New York and California

Recent national plans for recovery from bioterrorism acts perpetrated in densely populated urban areas acknowledge the formidable technical and social challenges of consequence management. Effective risk and crisis communication is one priority to strengthen the U.S.'s response and resilience. However, several notable risk events since September 11, 2001, have revealed vulnerabilities in risk/crisis communication strategies and infrastructure of agencies responsible for protecting civilian populations. During recovery from a significant biocontamination event, 2 goals are essential: (1) effective communication of changing risk circumstances and uncertainties related to cleanup, restoration, and reoccupancy; and (2) adequate responsiveness to emerging information needs and priorities of diverse populations in high-threat, vulnerable locations. This telephone survey study explored predictors of public reactions to uncertainty communications and reassurances from leaders related to the remediation stage of an urban-based bioterrorism incident. African American and Hispanic adults (N=320) were randomly sampled from 2 ethnically and socioeconomically diverse geographic areas in New York and California assessed as high threat, high vulnerability for terrorism and other public health emergencies. Results suggest that considerable heterogeneity exists in risk perspectives and information needs within certain sociodemographic groups; that success of risk/crisis communication during recovery is likely to be uneven; that common assumptions about public responsiveness to particular risk communications need further consideration; and that communication effectiveness depends partly on preexisting values and risk perceptions and prior trust in leaders. Needed improvements in communication strategies are possible with recognition of where individuals start as a reference point for reasoning about risk information, and comprehension of how this influences subsequent interpretation of agencies' actions and communications.     

Human Exposure to Mercury Through Fish Consumption: Risk Assessment of Riverside Inhabitants of the Urrá Reservoir,Colombia

This study evaluated the risk to human health from mercury exposure through fish consumption in three riverside populations: Children (CH, 2–15 years old), women of childbearing age (WCHA, 16–49 years old), and the rest of the population (RP) from the Urrá reservoir area, Colombia. Questionnaire-based surveys were used to collect data and information about the weekly amount of fish consumed (WAFC) and the relative importance of each fish species in the diet of the study participants. There were no significant differences in WAFC between population groups. CH recorded the highest weekly intake of total Hg (WIT-Hg) (0.6–55.4 μg/kg bodyweight/week), with significant differences (p < .05) from WCHA (0.2–26.7 μg/kg bw/w) and RP (0.1–23.6 μg/kg bw/w). A high percentage (90%) of estimated WIT-Hg values exceeded the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) established in order to protect the embryo and fetus. Results suggested that sensitive subgroups, such as pregnant women or those who may become pregnant and young children should limit or avoid consumption of certain fish of higher trophic levels due to their high total Hg (T-Hg) concentrations (up to 2.73 μg/g). In sum, the high values of WIT-Hg in children and women of childbearing age revealed a worrying situation, which should be reviewed carefully in order to prevent a potential public health crisis.     

Communicating information in an emergency preparedness pill distribution campaign

OBJECTIVES: Public health agencies are often tasked with the development and execution of interventions, but the communication strategy and its impact on the effectiveness of an intervention is often not evaluated or incorporated by local and state health agencies. The primary objective of this study was to determine the impact of information from various sources on knowledge about an emergency preparedness public health intervention involving the mass distribution of medicine. METHODS: The study used validated written mail surveys containing 12 simple knowledge-based questions. One-way ANOVA, the Studentized Newman-Keuls (SNK) test, logistic regression, and multiple regression were used to evaluate the data. RESULTS: Reading an educational fact sheet or receiving job training were the highest predictive variables for correct responses on the survey among all groups. Commercial media were found to potentially diminish comprehension among survey respondents. There was significant variability in knowledge among different groups surveyed, ranging from an average of 15% to 74% correct responses on the survey. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that job training and fact sheets that are delivered directly to the intended recipients are very effective at enhancing knowledge among the general public and emergency responders. Conversely, we found that commercial media, such as television, may be detrimental to educating the public about important public health interventions. The internet was not widely used by the survey respondents to obtain information; this raises questions regarding the usefulness of websites for emergency preparedness education.     

A proposal to use plant demographic data to assess potential weed biological control agents impacts on non-target plant populations

Weed biocontrol programs aim to reduce the spread and population growth rate of the target plant while stabilizing or increasing populations of those native species considered under threat by invasive plants. This goal is not unique to weed biocontrol but applies to all other invasive plant management techniques, though such information is rarely collected. Without this information, success of management interventions can be ambiguous, and regulatory agencies, the public, policy makers, funders and land managers cannot be held accountable for chosen treatments. A fundamental reform, including use of demographic studies and long-term assessments, are essential to guide weed biocontrol programs. We propose to add use of plant demography (an assessment of how environmental factors and ecological interactions, for example competition, disease or herbivory, may affect plant populations by altering survival, growth, development and reproductive rates of plant individuals) during host specificity risk assessments of potential biological control agents. Demographic models can refine assessments of potential impacts for those plant species that experience some feeding or larval development during host specificity testing. Our proposed approach to focus on impact on plant demography instead of attack on plant individuals is useful in appropriately gauging threats potential weed biocontrol agents may pose to non-target species after field release.     

Achieving effective outreach for invasive species: firewood case studies from 2005 to 2016

Invasive forest pests are damaging North American forests, and their intracontinental spread can be accelerated through the movement of infested firewood. We assessed the general public’s awareness, attitudes, and perceptions of forest health issues and identified potential strategies for more effective delivery of information about invasive forest pests and firewood transport. We analyzed data obtained from five surveys conducted between 2005 and 2016 (n?=?4,840). Awareness, choice of mode of information, and trusted messenger were predicted using linear regression models based on selected independent variables including age, race, gender, education level, and the participant’s type of residential area. Overall, awareness regarding invasive forest pests was low among participants. Participants stated they would be most likely to pay attention to a flyer handed out when entering a state or national park or receiving an email after making a campsite reservation. State forestry agencies were the most believable source of information regarding forest health issues. For the modes of information listed on the survey, older participants and those with higher education levels were more likely to have greater awareness levels and to pay attention, while female and younger participants were more likely to indicate they believed the messengers. We conclude that awareness is key for modifying behavior related to firewood transport; as such, educational campaigns with effective messaging strategies could be a successful approach to reducing the movement of firewood by members of the public.

     

Measuring rice farmers’ risk perceptions and attitude: Evidence from Pakistan

Abstract

The agriculture sector is confronting numerous types of risk. Like other crops’ farmers, rice growers are also facing multifarious challenges, including production and environmental risk. On the one hand, they are suffering from water shortage. On the other hand, if a flood occurs, there is no proper water reservation management, especially in developing countries. Global warming is another erotic topic for agriculture sustainability. To address the growers’ perceptions and their attitudes toward such types of risks, a farm base survey was carried out, and rice farmers were investigated in Pakistan. Methods of equally likely certainty equivalent and risk matrix were applied to investigate the farmers’ risk perceptions and attitude. A probit model was also used to estimate the factors that influence farmers’ perceptions and attitudes toward risks. The outcomes of the study show that flood, input high prices, increasing temperature, and crop diseases are the perceiving risks among rice farmers. Different types of socio-economic factors are influencing farmers’ risk perceptions and their attitudes, such as age, education level, a distance of farms from rivers, and non-farm income. This study provides valuable information to the policymakers and concerning authorities to apprehend agricultural risks among rice farmers and farming sustainability, especially in developing countries.     

The Croatian Adult Health Cohort Study (CroHort) --background, methodology & perspectives

Health interview surveys are important source of health information. All previous adult population-based health interview surveys in Croatia until CroHort, were one-off projects with very limited possibility of data comparison. CroHort enabled repeated survey of CAHS 2003 respondents with almost identical questionnaire, thus providing comparable data on trends of different risk factors as well as their relation to the specific outcomes. Next follow-up survey of the CroHort cohort is foreseen for 2013. Health interview survey according to Eurostat methodology (EHIS) on the new representative sample of adult Croatian population is planned for 2014. As the data from health interview surveys are valuable in health policy, efforts should be made to increase their use by policymakers in Croatia.     

Modelling Associations between Public Understanding,Engagement and Forest Conditions in the Inland Northwest,USA

Opinions about public lands and the actions of private non-industrial forest owners in the western United States play important roles in forested landscape management as both public and private forests face increasing risks from large wildfires, pests and disease. This work presents the responses from two surveys, a random-sample telephone survey of more than 1500 residents and a mail survey targeting owners of parcels with 10 or more acres of forest. These surveys were conducted in three counties (Wallowa, Union, and Baker) in northeast Oregon, USA. We analyze these survey data using structural equation models in order to assess how individual characteristics and understanding of forest management issues affect perceptions about forest conditions and risks associated with declining forest health on public lands. We test whether forest understanding is informed by background, beliefs, and experiences, and whether as an intervening variable it is associated with views about forest conditions on publicly managed forests. Individual background characteristics such as age, gender and county of residence have significant direct or indirect effects on our measurement of understanding. Controlling for background factors, we found that forest owners with higher self-assessed understanding, and more education about forest management, tend to hold more pessimistic views about forest conditions. Based on our results we argue that self-assessed understanding, interest in learning, and willingness to engage in extension activities together have leverage to affect perceptions about the risks posed by declining forest conditions on public lands, influence land owner actions, and affect support for public policies. These results also have broader implications for management of forested landscapes on public and private lands amidst changing demographics in rural communities across the Inland Northwest where migration may significantly alter the composition of forest owner goals, understanding, and support for various management actions.     

Opportunities for improving risk communication during the permitting process for entomophagous biological control agents: a review of current systems

Concerns about potentially irreversible non-target impacts from the importation and release of entomophagous biological control agents (BCAs) have resulted in increasingly stringent national import requirements by National Plant Protection Organizations worldwide. However, there is a divergence of opinions among regulators, researchers, environmentalists, and the general public on ways to appropriately manage associated risks. Implementation of a comprehensive and effective risk communication process might narrow the opinion gaps. Results from a comprehensive survey conducted in the United States were used to describe communication habits of stakeholders involved in biological control and identify areas that are fundamental in an efficient process. In addition, this study critically reviews risk communication practices and how phytosanitary decisions are communicated in the permitting systems for entomophagous BCAs of several countries to identify risk communication tools used in an effective risk communication framework. The following barriers to efficient risk communication were identified: absence of a formalized risk communication process, undefined risk communication goals and target audiences, lack of credibility and objectivity of information sources, inefficiency of mode of distribution of messages, insufficient public participation, and lack of transparency of decision making processes. This paper suggests the creation and/or enhancement of modes of distribution of risk messages to increase coverage, understanding, and guidance. For instance, messages should be presented in different formats such as internet, brochures, and newspapers. Surveys, public meetings, and trainings/workshops are tools that can be used to characterize stakeholders’ diversity and develop risk messages specific to the targeted audience. Implementation of a participatory decision making process will increase stakeholder involvement and trust in the risk management plan. Development of practical mechanisms, such as public hearings will increase all stakeholders’ involvement in the risk assessment process. A clear framework describing how public comments will be incorporated in the decision making process should be implemented. Finally, to ensure a streamlined risk communication process, there must be consistency in the messages disseminated by federal, state, and local agencies.     

Emergency communication and information issues in terrorist events involving radioactive materials

With the threat posed by terrorism involving radioactive materials now high on the nation's agenda, local, state, and federal agencies are moving to enhance preparedness and response capabilities. Crucial to these efforts is the development of effective risk communication strategies. This article reports findings from an ongoing study of risk communication issues in nuclear/radiological terrorism situations. It is part of a larger CDC-funded effort that aims to better understand communication challenges associated with weapons of mass destruction terrorism incidents. Presented here are formative research findings from 16 focus groups (n = 163) in which a multi-part, hypothetical radioactive materials terrorism situation was discussed. Twelve of the focus groups were carried out with members of the general public (drawn from a variety of ethnic backgrounds and geographic locations), and four groups were composed of first responders, hospital emergency department personnel, and public health professionals. One aim of the focus groups was to elicit detailed information on people's knowledge, views, perceptions, reactions, and concerns related to a nuclear/radiological terrorism event, and to better understand people's specific information needs and preferred information sources. A second aim was to pretest draft informational materials prepared by CDC and NIOSH. Key findings for the public and professional groups are presented, and the implications of the research for developing messages in radiological/nuclear terrorism situations are explored.     

Power and Control in Interactions Between Journalists and Health-Related Industries: The View From Industry

The mass media is a major source of health information for the public, and as such the quality and independence of health news reporting is an important concern. Concerns have been expressed that journalists reporting on health are increasingly dependent on their sources—including representatives of industries responsible for manufacturing health-related products—for story ideas and content. Many critics perceive an imbalance of power between journalists and industry sources, with industry being in a position of relative power, however the empirical evidence to support this view is limited. The analysis presented here—which is part of a larger study of industry-journalist relationships—draws on in-depth, semi-structured interviews with representatives of health-related industries in Australia to inductively examine their perceptions of power relations between industry and journalists. Participants painted a picture in which journalists, rather than themselves, were in a position to control the nature, extent, and outcome of their interactions with industry sources. Our results resonate with the concept of “mediatisation” as it has been applied in the domain of political reporting. It appears that, from the perspective of industry representatives, the imposition of media logic on health-related industries may inappropriately influence the information that the public receives about health-related products.     

The Complex Emergency Database: A Global Repository of Small-Scale Surveys on Nutrition,Health and Mortality

Evidence has become central for humanitarian decision making, as it is now commonly agreed that aid must be provided solely in proportion to the needs and on the basis of needs assessments. Still, reliable epidemiological data from conflict-affected communities are difficult to acquire in time for effective decisions, as existing health information systems progressively lose functionality with the onset of conflicts. In the last decade, health and nutrition humanitarian agencies have made substantial progress in collecting quality data using small-scale surveys. In 2002, a group of academics, non-governmental organizations, and UN agencies launched the Standardized Monitoring and Assessment of Relief and Transitions (SMART) methodology. Since then, field agencies have conducted thousands of surveys. Although the contribution of each survey by itself is limited by its small sample and the impossibility to extrapolate results to national level, their aggregation can provide a more stable view of both trends and distributions in a larger region. The Complex Emergency Database (CEDAT) was set up in order to make best use of the collective force of these surveys. Functioning as a central repository, it can provide valuable information on trends and patterns of mortality and nutrition indicators from conflict-affected communities. Given their high spatial resolution and their high frequency, CEDAT data can complement official statistics in between nationwide surveys. They also provide information of the displacement status of the measured population, pointing out vulnerabilities. CEDAT is hosted at the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, University of Louvain. It runs on voluntary agreements between the survey implementer and the CEDAT team. To date, it contains 3309 surveys from 51 countries, and is a unique repository of such data.     

Problems of public participation in the Ramsar CEPA programme at the Tana Delta,Kenya

This research examines the problems of public participation in conserving a Ramsar site at the Tana Delta in southeastern Kenya. Given no participation of the public in government initiatives so far, we attempted to find out what had prevented local people from cooperating with responsible government bodies. Using empirical evidence that we obtained from fieldworks, questionnaire surveys, and workshops, we found that the low participation was not mainly due to local people’s unwillingness to conserve natural resources. Instead, we found that they were strongly interested in wetland resources conservation as long as their customary rights to governing resources are sufficiently recognized. We also documented how these local people managed their resources. The Kenya Wildlife Service and the National Museum of Kenya are the main government bodies to promote public participation, but we found that these agencies had not done effective communication works among local people. Our survey then clarified what sources of information can be most effective in communicating with local people in the Tana Delta. Finally, we discuss how the problems of public participation can be solved or reduced.     

Learning to live with black bears: A psychological model of acceptance

The reappearance and recovery of large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes creates a need to understand how people will respond to the presence of these animals. We tested a psychological model of acceptance to determine what variables most influence people's acceptance for black bears (Ursus americanus) in an area with an emerging black bear population (Ohio, USA). We hypothesized that people's perceptions of risk and benefit related to bears would mediate the effect of trust (in wildlife management agencies) and personal control (over interactions with and management of wildlife) on acceptance for black bears. We used a mail-back survey of Ohio residents (n = 9,400; adjusted response rate = 35%) to assess the variables of interest and test the hypothesized model. Based on multiple criteria of model fit, the hypothesized model fit the data acceptably well. The model explained approximately 62% of the variance in acceptance, and perception of risk associated with black bears had the largest impact on the level of acceptance. As large carnivore populations expand and interactions with humans increase, our results will aid managers in designing outreach materials and communications aimed at promoting acceptance for large carnivores. Our model suggests that interventions raising an individual's social trust in the managing agency, or personal control can indirectly raise stakeholders' acceptance by reducing risk perception and increasing perception of benefit from carnivores. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Stakeholder Participation in Research Design and Decisions: Scientists, Fishers, and Mercury in Saltwater Fish

Individuals who fish and eat self-caught fish make decisions about where to fish, the type to eat, and the quantity to eat. Federal and state agencies often issue consumption advisories for some fish with high mercury (Hg) concentrations, but seldom provide either the actual metal levels to the general public, or identify the fish that have low contaminant levels. Community participatory research is of growing importance in defining, studying, and resolving complex exposure and risk issues, and this paper is at the intersection of traditional stakeholder approaches and community-based participatory research. The objective of this paper is to describe the process whereby stakeholders (fishers), were involved in directing and refining research questions to address their particular informational needs about mercury levels in fish, potential risks, and methods to maintain health, by balancing the risks and benefits of fish consumption. A range of stakeholders, mainly individual fishers, fishing organizations, and other scientists, were involved at nearly every stage. Community participants influenced many aspects of the design and implementation of the research, in the determination of which fish species to sample, in the collection of the samples, and in the final analyses and synthesis, as well as the communication of results and implications of the research through their fishing club publications, talks and gatherings. By involving the most interested and affected communities, the data and conclusions are relevant to their needs because the fish examined were those they ate and wanted information about, and directly address concerns about the risk from consuming self-caught fish. Although mercury levels in fish presumed to be high in mercury are known, little information was available to the fishermen on mercury levels in fish that were low and thus provided little risk to their families. While community participatory research is more time-consuming and expensive than traditional scientific research, both the process and results are better scientifically in terms of community relevance.     

ASHG activities relative to education. Heredity and adoption: a survey of state adoption agencies.

A subcommittee of The Social Issues Committee of The American Society of Human Genetics (ASHG), aware of the growing interest in the implications of inheritance and adoption, in 1987 began surveying the 50 states' and Washington DC's public adoption agencies regarding this issue, and it completed the survey in 1988. In 1987, two surveys obtained data on each state's legal requirements for obtaining genetic information and on what each public adoption agency collected as genetic history. These results were presented in a poster at the 1987 ASHG annual meeting in San Diego. In 1988, a questionnaire was sent to the same agencies to elicit opinions as to whether adoption agencies should systematically collect genetic information to share with the adoptive family and adoptee, whether legislation should be mandated to collect such information, and whether genetic education programs should be developed and implemented for adoption-agency staff. On the basis of responses to the 1988 questionnaire, it was concluded that there is an interest in developing a uniform set of genetic information which should be part of a child's adoption record and that there is a need for genetic education programs for adoption workers. Responses to the desirability of mandating legislation for this purpose were less consistent.