Lead shot ingestion by mourning doves on a disked field

Previous field studies of hunter-harvested mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) have reported the percentage of birds with ingested lead shot as 0.2–6.5%. To reduce the uncertainty concerning the number of doves that ingest shot, we conducted an experiment to test the proportion of mourning doves that ingested lead shot on the bare soil of a disked field (typical of a managed dove field) to simulate more natural feeding conditions. In each of 3 treatment groups of 80 birds, we exposed 35 birds to low-density lead shot (1.5 million shot/ha), and35 birds to high-density lead shot (29.5 million shot/ha), and 10 birds served as controls (no shot). We dosed 5 positive control birds with 2 lead shot each in trials 2 and 3. We scattered lead shot and mixed seed on the loosely packed soil of treatment cages and after 4 days of exposure, 2.9% of doves voluntarily ingested ≥1 lead shot. The proportion of birds that ingested shot when exposed to the high-density shot treatment (4.9%) was not different (P = 0.098) from that of the low-density shot treatment (1.0%). Lead concentrations in liver, kidneys, and blood reached maxima of 94.402 ppm, 346.033 ppm, and 13.883 ppm wet mass, respectively. Differences in delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) activity, packed cell volume, and heterophil:lymphocyte ratio (H:L) were greater posttreatment in doves that had ingested shot than in those that did not. The risk posed to mourning doves from lead shot ingestion can be reduced by banning lead shot on management areas or dove fields or disking fields after hunting season to reduce shot availability. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

A comparison of two methods to establish the prevalence of lead shot ingestion in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) from The Netherlands

Two collection methods for screening the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) population in the Netherlands for the ingestion of spent lead shot were compared. One method consisted of examination of gizzards from mallards shot by hunters (n = 2,859) and the other method consisted of examination of gizzards from mallards caught in duck traps (n = 865). The 95% confidence interval of lead shot ingestion in the mallard population estimated by the first method was 1.7 to 2.9% and by the second method 1.1 to 3.1%. These values were not significantly different. From the numbers of lead pellets embedded in the gizzard wall in hunter-killed and trapped mallards it was estimated that at least 22 to 68% of the trapped ducks had been hit by lead shot previously, but survived. Furthermore, this study shows that it is reasonable to assume that a substantial part of the pellets which are identified (in this study and other studies) as ingested, may well have been shot into the gizzard lumen at some time before the birds were actually killed. To avoid lead poisoning in mallards and in raptors depredating waterfowl hit by lead shot, a change to steel shot is advocated.     

Lead shot poisoning of a pacific loon in Alaska

Lead poisoning, associated with ingestion of spent lead shot, was diagnosed in an adult female Pacific loon (Gavia pacifica) observed with partial paralysis on 13 June 2002 and found dead on 16 June 2002 on Kigigak Island, Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, western Alaska, USA. A necropsy revealed three pellets of ingested lead shot in the loon's gizzard and a lead liver concentration of 31 ppm wet weight, which was consistent with metallic lead poisoning. This is the first report of lead poisoning in a Pacific loon and is the only account of lead toxicosis associated with ingestion of lead shot in any loon species breeding in Alaska.     

Lead poisoning in swans and sources of contamination in Ireland

A study of blood levels in mute swans Cygnus olor in Ireland has revealed that ingested lead pellets are responsible for acute lead poisoning. Forty-two percent of blood samples from 890 live birds at one site showed elevated lead levels. X-ray examination of live birds revealed the source of contamination to be ingested lead pellets. Urban birds were shown to have higher ( P 0001) lead levels than rural birds, the blood lead levels of which were presumed to reflect natural background levels. Urban grass was shown to have elevated lead but this did not cause lead poisoning in Canada geese Branta canadensis . Post-mortem examination has shown that 68% ( n = 101) of all mute swans examined from a number of sites died from lead poisoning. Two sources of poisoning were identified; spent gunshot from a claypigeon shooting site at Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland, and lost or discarded anglers' weights at Cork Lough and at a fishing pond in Belfast, N.I. The first known case of lead poisoning in whooper swans Cygnus cygnus in Ireland is recorded which resulted from the ingestion of gunshot used almost two decades earlier. Aspects of the pathology of lead poisoned swans is discussed.     

Lead poisoning in wild populations of Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus in the Camargue and Charente-Maritime, France

Lead poisoning of waterfowl, through the ingestion of spent gunshot, has been recognized as a mortality factor for over a century. However, in Europe relatively little attention has been paid to raptors that may ingest shot embedded in the flesh of prey. The present study examines the incidence of lead poisoning in wild Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus trapped at two sites in France, the Camargue and Charente-Maritime.
Eight captive Marsh Harriers (controls) had blood lead (PbB) concentrations of 5.3–10.8 μg per dl. Of 94 wild birds trapped during the winters of 1990/1991 and 1991/1992 either in baited clap traps or in mist nets at night roosts, 29 (31%) had elevated (>30 μg/dl) PbB concentrations and 13 (14%) had concentrations indicative of clinical poisoning (> 60 μg/dl). Similar percentages of birds caught using the two trapping methods had elevated (>30 μg/dl) PbB concentrations. However, clap netting appeared to select for more heavily contaminated birds and for juvenile birds, although the two are not necessarily correlated. In the Camargue, significantly more females than males trapped in clap nets had elevated PbB concentrations.
The incidence of shot in regurgitated Marsh Harrier pellets increased significantly between October and December, indicating increased exposure to lead as the hunting season progressed. There appeared to be a parallel increase in PbB concentrations throughout the hunting season, although this could not be clearly demonstrated as sex ratios were different during different sampling periods.
Elevated PbB concentrations of harriers in the Camargue are likely to result primarily from the ingestion of shot in the flesh of crippled or unretrieved waterfowl and in Charente-Maritime, from eating crippled or dead mammals.
Other raptors at risk from lead poisoning and solutions to this problem are discussed.     

Management and Conservation Article

Abstract Despite increased knowledge about environmental toxins and changes in lead use (i.e., the mandated use of nonlead paint, gasoline, and shotgun pellets used for hunting waterfowl on federal lands), lead poisoning continues to occur in terrestrial birds. The degree of exposure and its demographic effect, however, continue to be described, emphasizing the growing concern over lead exposure. We examined 302 blood samples from common ravens (Corvus corax) scavenging on hunter-killed large ungulates and their offal piles to determine if lead rifle-bullet residuum was a point source for lead ingestion in ravens. We took blood samples during a 15-month period spanning 2 hunting seasons. Of the ravens tested during the hunting season, 47% exhibited elevated blood lead levels (≥ 10 μg/dL) whereas 2% tested during the nonhunting season exhibited elevated levels. Females had significantly higher blood lead levels than did males. Our results confirm that ravens are ingesting lead during the hunting season and are likely exposed to lead from rifle-shot big-game offal piles.     

Recreational Shooting of Prairie Dogs: A Portal for Lead Entering Wildlife Food Chains

Abstract: Although lead shot has been banned for waterfowl hunting in North America, some predators continue to exhibit elevated lead burdens, which has been attributed to ingesting metallic lead from other projectiles. Few studies have investigated residual lead fragments in hunted upland animals. Therefore, specific portals for lead entering wildlife food chains remain largely unknown. Prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) are shot for recreation with minimal regulation in western North America. Because recreational shooters mostly use expanding bullets and rarely remove or bury carcasses, shot prairie dogs could make lead accessible to predators and scavengers. To determine whether and to what degree shot prairie dogs carry lead fragments, we analyzed carcasses shot by recreational shooters with 2 bullet types. Bullet type influenced the probability of bullet fragments being retained in carcasses; 87% of prairie dogs shot with expanding bullets contained bullet fragments, whereas 7% of carcasses shot with non-expanding bullets did. The amount of bullet fragments per carcass also differed between bullet types; carcasses shot with expanding bullets contained a mean of 228.4 mg of the lead-containing bullet core and 74.4 mg of the copper-alloy jacket, whereas carcasses shot with non-expanding bullets averaged only 19.8 mg of the core and 23.2 mg of the jacket. Lead fragments in carcasses shot with expanding bullets were small in size; 73% of all lead mass in each carcass was from fragments that weighed <25 mg each, small enough to be easily ingested and absorbed by secondary consumers. The amount of lead in a single prairie dog carcass shot with an expanding bullet is potentially sufficient to acutely poison scavengers or predators. Therefore, shot prairie dogs may provide an important portal for lead entering wildlife food chains and may pose risks to raptors and carnivores. Managers should consider measures, such as using non-expanding or lead-free ammunition, to reduce the likelihood of lead consumption and poisoning in upland wildlife.     

Exposure of California Condors to Lead From Spent Ammunition

ABSTRACT The scientific evidence that California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) are frequently sickened and killed by lead poisoning from spent ammunition supports the conclusion that current levels of lead exposure are too high to allow reintroduced condors to develop self-sustaining populations in the wild in Arizona and, by inference, in California. The evidence for lead poisoning and its source comes from the following sorts of data: 1) 18 clinical necropsies revealing high levels of lead in body tissues and (or) presence of lead shotgun pellets and bullet fragments in digestive tracts; 2) moribund condors showing crop paralysis and impending starvation with toxic levels of lead in their blood; 3) widespread lead exposure among free-flying condors, many with clinically exposed or acute levels; 4) temporal and spatial correlations between big game hunting seasons and elevated lead levels in condors; and 5) lead isotope ratios from exposed condors showing close similarity to isotope ratios of ammunition lead but isotope ratios in less exposed condors being similar to environmental background sources, which are different from ammunition lead. Simple population models reveal harmful demographic impacts of unnatural mortality from lead on population trajectories of reintroduced condors. Recent innovations in the manufacture of nonlead shotgun pellets and bullets with superior ballistics now provide for a simple solution to the problem of lead ingestion by condors, many other species of wildlife, and human beings: substitute nontoxic forms of ammunition for traditional lead-based ammunition. The substitution of nontoxic ammunition would be highly efficacious for hunting, economically feasible, and the right thing to do.     

Effectiveness of Action to Reduce Exposure of Free-Ranging California Condors in Arizona and Utah to Lead from Spent Ammunition

California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) released into the wild in Arizona ranged widely in Arizona and Utah. Previous studies have shown that the blood lead concentrations of many of the birds rise because of ingestion of spent lead ammunition. Condors were routinely recaptured and treated to reduce their lead levels as necessary but, even so, several died from lead poisoning. We used tracking data from VHF and satellite tags, together with the results of routine testing of blood lead concentrations, to estimate daily changes in blood lead level in relation to the location of each bird. The mean daily increment in blood lead concentration depended upon both the location of the bird and the time of year. Birds that spent time during the deer hunting season in two areas in which deer were shot with lead ammunition (Kaibab Plateau (Arizona) and Zion (Utah)) were especially likely to have high blood lead levels. The influence upon blood lead level of presence in a particular area declined with time elapsed since the bird was last there. We estimated the daily blood lead level for each bird and its influence upon daily mortality rate from lead poisoning. Condors with high blood lead over a protracted period were much more likely to die than birds with low blood lead or short-term elevation. We simulated the effect of ending the existing lead exposure reduction measures at Kaibab Plateau, which encourage the voluntary use of non-lead ammunition and removal of gut piles of deer and elk killed using lead ammunition. The estimated mortality rate due to lead in the absence of this program was sufficiently high that the condor population would be expected to decline rapidly. The extension of the existing lead reduction program to cover Zion (Utah), as well as the Kaibab plateau, would be expected to reduce mortality caused by lead substantially and allow the condor population to increase.     

Winter diet and lead poisoning risk of Greater Spotted Eagles Clanga clanga in southeast Spain

ABSTRACT

Capsule: Diet analysis revealed high lead exposure for Greater Spotted Eagles Clanga clanga wintering in southeast Spain.

Aims: To describe the diet composition of the endangered Greater Spotted Eagle in a wintering area located in southeast Spain, and determine lead ammunition exposure through analysis of regurgitated pellets and prey remains.

Methods: Between 2008 and 2018, a total of 26 pellets, 29 prey remains and 10 direct predation observations were collected in El Hondo Natural Park, Spain. All the pellets and 10 prey remains were analysed with X-ray in order to detect metal from ammunition.

Results: Greater Spotted Eagles fed mainly on birds, with 18 different species accounting for 73.1% of prey items and 66.1% of biomass consumed. The most frequent species identified were Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus (23.1%), rats Rattus spp. (15.4%) and Common Teal Anas crecca (8.9%). Ammunition was detected in 42.3% of regurgitated pellets and in 40.0% of prey remains analysed. Of those containing ammunition, lead shot was found in 63.9% of pellets and 25.0% of prey remains.

Conclusion: High lead shot presence in pellets and prey remains of wintering Greater Spotted Eagles in southeast Spain warns of a high risk of lead poisoning. Factors such as feeding behaviour, the large space–time overlap between the raptor presence and the waterbird hunting season and non-compliance with the ban on the use of lead ammunition are likely contributing to high lead exposure.     

Blood lead levels in wintering and moulting Icelandic whooper swans over two decades

Lead poisoning of waterfowl through the ingestion of spent gunshot and discarded anglers' weights continues to be a problem worldwide. We took blood samples from 363 whooper swans Cygnus cygnus at wintering sites in Britain and Ireland and at moulting sites in Iceland during 2001–2005, and analysed them for total blood lead. Lead levels were generally low in swans in Iceland; 6% of samples exceeded 1.21  μ mol L⁻¹, the level indicative of elevated lead and above background levels. The proportion of swans with elevated lead was much higher in the wintering range, varying between 43 and 70% at three sites monitored over the winters 2003/2004–2005/2006, and with blood lead levels ranging up to 19.6  μ mol L⁻¹. The highest levels were in samples taken from swans in Scotland, with a mean value of 3.0  μ mol L⁻¹, but nevertheless they indicated a marked decrease compared with blood lead levels measured for whooper swans at the same site 20 years ago. There also appeared to be a significant long-term decrease in the proportion of swans with elevated blood lead in Iceland, from 60% of birds in 1984 to 8% in 2005, although this may be due to the birds being caught in different parts of Iceland. The most likely source of elevated lead in whooper swans is spent gunshot. Management measures to reduce the impact of lead in the environment on the birds are discussed.     

Lead poisoning in wild waterfowl in Japan

We collected 430 harvested ducks (Anas sp. and Aythya sp.) from nine prefectures in Japan between 1994 and 1997. Fifteen (4%) of 363 birds harvested during and after hunting seasons had one lead pellet each in the proventriculus and gizzard. In addition, 32 (34%) of 93 swans (Cygnus sp.) and two of 14 geese (Anser sp.) found dead from various wetlands had lesions consistent with lead poisoning. One to nine swans suspected of having toxicosis from ingestion of lead shot were found dead each year. Twenty-seven (84%) of the 32 lead-exposured swans were found in Hokkaido Prefecture. We concluded that lead poisoning is still a serious threat to waterfowl in Japan and that there is considerable need for environmental improvement concerning this problem.     

Attitudes of Missouri Small Game Hunters Toward Nontoxic-Shot Regulations

ABSTRACT Wildlife managers are becoming more concerned about the exposure of birds, in addition to waterfowl, to spent lead shot. Knowledge of hunter attitudes and their acceptance of nontoxic-shot regulations will be important in establishing new regulations. Our objective was to assess the attitudes of small game hunters in Missouri, USA, toward a nontoxic-shot regulation for small game hunting, specifically for mourning doves (Zenaida macroura). Most hunters (71.7–84.8%) opposed additional nontoxic-shot regulations. Hunters from rural areas, hunters with a rural background, hunters who hunt doves, hunters who currently hunt waterfowl, hunters who primarily use private lands, and current upland game hunters were more likely to oppose new regulations. For mourning dove hunting, most small game hunters (81.1%) opposed further restrictions; however, many non-dove hunters (57.1%) expressed no opinion. Because our results demonstrate that most small game hunters and dove hunters in Missouri are decidedly against further nontoxic-shot regulations, any informational and educational programs developed to accompany future policy changes must address their concerns.     

Territorial Pheromones of Female Red-backed Salamanders

Pheromones provide an important source of communication during social interactions of caudate amphibians. To further examine their use in territorial defense, we performed a laboratory experiment to test the hypothesis that non-courting female red-backed salamanders (Plethodon cinereus) deposit pheromones in or on fecal pellets, as males are known to do during territorial advertisement. Four conditions were tested: (1) a burrow marked with a female's own pellet vs. a burrow marked by a conspecific female's pellet, (2) own vs. unmarked burrows, (3) conspecific vs. unmarked burrows, and (4) paired unmarked burrows as a control. Females nose-tapped (for olfactory cues) their own and conspecific pellets about equally. However, they spent significantly more time in both threat and submissive behavior toward the conspecific pellets and spent significantly more time in their own marked burrows. We infer that female P. cinereus do deposit pheromones in or on fecal pellets and that these pellets may be used to advertise territories. The behavioral responses of females toward pellets of other females were more aggressive than those of males (in a previous study) toward pellets of other males.     

Lead poisoning in captive Andean condors (Vultur gryphus)

Elevated lead in the tissues of raptors, especially those that scavenge, is a common occurrence, and lead poisoning appears to be a significant problem in the ongoing recovery effort for California condors (Gymnogyps californianus). Elevated blood lead levels have been found in released birds, and a number of birds have died of lead poisoning. In earlier work, we dosed turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) with lead shot but found them to be a poor model for lead poisoning. In this study, we dosed four Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) with lead shot and found them to be quite sensitive, as two of the birds died and the other two exhibit signs of lead poisoning within 50 days. All lead-responsive parameters were affected, and regurgitation of dosed shot occurred only once. The response of the Andean condors appeared to mimic California condors, suggesting that once exposed to lead, the possibility of survival is poor. This is consistent with observations in the wild, where otherwise healthy birds exposed to metallic lead quickly succumb. At the very least, the release program has to maintain constant surveillance and an active lead monitoring program.     

Pheromonal markers as indicators of parasite load: parasite-mediated behavior in salamanders (Plethodon angusticlavius)

Assessment of parasite load of conspecifics may be important during social interactions such as courtship and aggressive encounters. We used a correlational study to test whether pheromonal markers can be used to assess parasite load of conspecifics, and whether the parasite load of the pheromone receivers affected their responses. We tested the responses of parasitized and nonparasitized Ozark zigzag salamanders, Plethodon angusticlavius, to territorial markers (fecal pellets) from conspecific males. Males and females were simultaneously exposed to fecal pellets placed in front of two artificial burrows located at the opposite ends of their chambers. The treatments were (1) fecal pellet of male with low parasite load versus fecal pellet of male with high parasite load, (2) fecal pellet of male with low parasite load versus control pellet (chemical blank), and (3) fecal pellet of male with high parasite load versus control pellet. Nonparasitized females spent significantly more time near fecal pellets of males with low parasite load in test condition 1, whereas the behavior of parasitized females was not significantly different from random in any test condition. Males responded differently to treatments only in condition 3; males with low parasite loads spent significantly more time near control pellets, whereas males with high parasite loads spent significantly more time near fecal pellets of males with high parasite loads. This study demonstrates that pheromonal markers may be used for assessment of parasite load of conspecifics and that responses by both males and females may be influenced by their own level of infection. Received: 21 January 1999 / Received in revised form: 17 March 2000 / Accepted: 13 November 2000     

Embedded lead shot in European starlings Sturnus vulgaris: an underestimated hazard for humans and birds of prey

The poisoning of wild animals by lead (Pb) ammunition fired by hunters has been known for many decades, especially in the case of waterbirds. More recently, it has been demonstrated that raptors are also exposed to the risk of plumbism when feeding on unretrieved quarry that was wounded or killed by hunters. Further studies reveal that even humans can be subject to a significant Pb dose while consuming game animals killed by traditional ammunition. Given the relevance of this issue, several pieces of research have been carried out to assess frequency, dimension, and the number of Pb fragments embedded in the carcasses of ungulates, partridges, ducks, and other birds to evaluate the risk related to the consumption of game meat. In spite of their great importance as quarry species across southern Europe, until now, no data have been available on small passerines. To assess the quantity and type of Pb embedded in songbirds, we x-rayed 196 starlings shot in Italy and found Pb pellets and/or visible fragments in 118 carcasses (60.2 %). We counted 128 shotgun pellets in 85 carcasses. In 28 birds, we detected both whole pellets and lead fragments; in 33, we found only small fragments. By excising and weighing a sample of 20 shotgun pellets (diameter 1.35–1.99 mm), we calculated a Pb load of 3.75 g in the whole sample of 196 starlings, corresponding to an average of 27.32 mg/100 g of body weight. This is a conservative estimation, because fragments were not considered. Compared to game birds of a larger size, the starlings in our study had a lower amount of embedded Pb, but the shot pellets and fragments embedded in their tissues were abundant and tiny. Given the results of previous studies, the quantity and level of fragmentation suggest that the risk of Pb poisoning cannot be ruled out for humans and birds of prey consuming the meat from songbirds killed with traditional ammunition.     

Toxic effects of ingested lead shots in domestic fowls

Lead poisoning from ingested shots is thought to be a major cause of high mortality in waterfowls throughout the world, and some millions of fowls die each year. However, there have been no other Japanese studies regarding lead toxicity in birds from ingested lead shots. We used domestic fowls instead of waterfowls as the experimental birds, in order to make clear the distribution and the toxic effects of lead shot in the birds. In a 1-wk follow-up study, two, four, and eight #4 lead shots were administered orally. A dose-dependent increase of the lead concentrations in blood, brain, liver, kidney, lung, spleen, bone, and epidermis of the gizzard was observed. In the 12-wk follow-up study, twenty domestic fowls were used and eight #4 lead shots were administered to the experimental birds. Lead concentrations in brain, liver, kidney, bone, ovary, fat tissue, and breast muscle increased more than in the 1-wk follow-up study. The observed lead concentrations of organs in the domestic fowls were lower than those of the other species used in past studies. The blood lead concentrations increased up to the third week and a remarkable suppression of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity in red blood cells and elevation of free erythropoietic protoporphyrin were observed in the exposed group. Body weight loss, loss of hair, and neurological symptoms were also observed. However, there were no mortalities during the 1- and 12-wk studies.     

Free lunch,may contain lead: scavenging shot small mammals

Scavengers are subsidized by the remains of hunting worldwide. Although most studies focus on carcasses of large mammals, small mammals that have been shot likely provide a significant food subsidy as well, particularly in parts of the western United States. Millions of small mammals are estimated to be shot each year for damage control and recreation, many being left in the field. Despite this prevalence of carrion, and the potential for scavengers to ingest residual lead from bullet fragments, the fate of these carcasses is largely unknown. We deployed remote cameras to observe which scavengers consumed shot ground squirrels (Urocitellus spp.) and black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) in 8 locations across Montana, USA. At least 5 species of mammals and 9 species of birds scavenged, including burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia). Scavengers fully consumed 66% of carcasses and partially consumed 9%. Carcasses lasted an average of 24.5 hours before the first scavenger arrived. Of carcasses that were scavenged, mammals ate 16% and birds ate 84%, with corvids and raptors consuming an equal number of carcasses. Common ravens (Corvus corax) and black-billed magpies (Pica hudsonia) visited the most carcasses and often arrived first. Scavengers consumed only 9% of the carcasses that were partially concealed by being inside a burrow. Overall, our results indicate that a diverse scavenger community consumes shot ground squirrels and black-tailed prairie dogs, and consequently, may be exposed to lead from bullet fragments. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Ammunition Type and Shot Placement Determine Lead Fragmentation in Deer

Lead remnants from spent ammunition introduce health risks to humans and wildlife that consume game harvested with firearms. Most current research has focused on effects of high-velocity rifle bullets, whereas low-velocity lead ammunition has received little attention. We examined whether fragmentation characteristics differed between 3 common low-velocity ammunition types when shot into the thoracic cavity or shoulder of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) culled in Indiana, USA, from May–September of 2009. We shot and subsequently radiographed 43 deer to determine the number of fragments, fragment size, and distance traveled by individual fragments. We also radiographed deer post-evisceration to determine the proportion of fragments available to humans and wildlife scavengers for consumption in muscle and visceral tissue, respectively. All radiographed deer had evidence of fragmentation, with a geometric mean of 13.1 (95% CI = 10.3, 16.8) fragments/deer. Most fragments (89%) were <5 mm from wound channels, and no fragment traveled beyond 205 mm from a wound channel. Fragments were often retained within the muscle tissue of deer with a geometric mean rate of 0.55 (95% CI = 0.48, 0.65). Muzzleloader bullet fragments were larger than those generated by rifled and sabot slugs, and sabot slug fragments had the shortest dispersal from wound channels. Shoulder-shot placement and bone contact for all ammunition resulted in a greater number of fragments (P < 0.01). Shoulder-shots also generated more small fragments and higher fragment retention in muscle tissue. The overall mean number of lead fragments detected across our ammunition treatments was less than previous studies. Our results indicate ammunition type and shot placement may be considerations for hunters wishing to limit their potential exposure to lead from harvested big game. Additionally, when compared to high-velocity rifle bullets, significantly fewer lead fragments are made available to humans and wildlife that consume game harvested with low-velocity ammunition types, such as those tested here. Complete elimination of lead ingestion by humans and wildlife, however, is only possible by using non-toxic ammunition alternatives. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.