棉铃虫酪氨酸羟化酶基因的分子特性及功能分析

【目的】酪氨酸羟化酶(tyrosine hydroxylase, TH)是黑色素形成的关键酶,在昆虫表皮骨化过程中扮演重要角色。本研究旨在获得棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera TH基因序列,并研究其分子特性、表达模式和功能,为更深入探析该基因作用机理奠定基础。【方法】通过生物信息学和分子生物学技术获得了棉铃虫TH基因序列,利用qRT-PCR分析该基因在棉铃虫不同生长发育阶段的表达模式;利用qRT-PCR技术,分别测定了蜕皮激素20E(400 ng/头)处理不同时间和RNAi成功干扰蜕皮激素受体基因(EcR)前提下再用20E(400 ng/头)处理后,棉铃虫5龄幼虫TH表达量变化;采用生物化学方法检测鞣化激素(30 μg/mg组织)和环腺苷酸(cAMP, 200 ng/mg 组织)处理后棉铃虫幼虫脂肪体中TH活性。【结果】获得了棉铃虫酪氨酸羟化酶基因TH (GenBank登录号: MF440319) cDNA片段,长2 270 bp,开放阅读框1 686 bp,编码561个氨基酸残基。该基因在棉铃虫整个发育期均表达,其中在卵期第3天、2龄幼虫第1天、3-5龄蜕皮期、预蛹期和成虫羽化第1天表达量相对较高。研究还发现,400 ng/头 20E注射能够促进TH的转录;在成功干扰并调低幼虫EcR转录水平的前提条件下(对照仅注射dsGFP)再注射20E,对TH表达量无明显影响;而鞣化激素(30 μg/mg组织)和cAMP(200 ng/mg组织)均显著提高了TH的酶活性。【结论】20E在转录水平参与了TH的表达;鞣化激素和cAMP均能够提高TH活性,在蛋白水平上对TH进行调控。     

Evolutionary conservation of an atypical glucocorticoid‐responsive element in the human tyrosine hydroxylase gene

The human tyrosine hydroxylase (hTH) gene has a 42 bp evolutionarily conserved region designated (CR) II at ?7.24 kb, which bears 93% homology to the region we earlier identified as containing the glucocorticoid response element, a 7 bp activator protein‐1 (AP‐1)‐like motif in the rat TH gene. We cloned this hTH‐CRII region upstream of minimal basal hTH promoter in luciferase (Luc) reporter vector, and tested glucocorticoid responsiveness in human cell lines. Dexamethasone (Dex) stimulated Luc activity of hTH‐CRII in HeLa cells, while mifepristone, a glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonist, prevented Dex stimulation. Deletion of the 7 bp 5′‐TGACTAA at ?7243 bp completely abolished the Dex‐stimulated Luc activity of hTH‐CRII construct. The AP‐1 agonist, tetradeconoyl‐12,13‐phorbol acetate (TPA), also stimulated hTH promoter activity, and Dex and TPA together further accentuated this response. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed the presence of both GR and AP‐1 proteins, especially Jun family members, at this hTH promoter site. Dex did not stimulate hTH promoter activity in a catecholaminergic cell line, which had low endogenous GR levels, but did activate the response when GR was expressed exogenously. Thus, our studies have clearly identified a glucocorticoid‐responsive element in a 7 bp AP‐1‐like motif in the promoter region at ?7.24 kb of the human TH gene.     

Purification and characterization of the active form of tyrosine hydroxylase from mesangial cells in culture

The capacity of mesangial cells (MC) to produce catecholamines (CAs) has been investigated in our laboratory. To study the CA cascade, it is necessary to examine some steps in their metabolic pathway. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of these biogenic amines (dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE), and epinephrine (EPI)). Since the glomerular mesangium is their target in the regulation of renal sodium transport and renin secretion, the aim of the study was to determine the presence of TH in these cells in culture. The CA levels were detected in immortalized MC by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. The following concentrations were found in the intracellular region and in the medium, respectively: NE = 284 +/- 31 and 134 +/- 22, EPI = 75 +/- 14 and 22 +/- 5, and DA = 42 +/- 14, 40 +/- 20 pg/mg cell protein. The enzymatic activity of the cell lysate and medium was measured based on L-dopa formation. In the presence of o-phenanthroline, both samples presented 39% inhibition. The biopterin was detected in the intracellular and in the medium (64.87 and 631.99 pmol/mg protein, respectively) using high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. The cell lysate was submitted to a DEAE-Sephacel column, followed by gel filtration, and Heparin-Sepharose. TH was purified 613.16-fold with a specific activity of 466.0 pg/mg cell protein. Immunoblotting using monoclonal antibody revealed the presence of TH in the different purification steps. Purified TH was sequenced, presenting an alignment with amino-terminal sequence of mouse enzyme. Our results demonstrated the presence of active TH in MC, suggesting that these cells are able to produce CA "in vivo", and establishing a convenient purification method for TH that can be applied to the study of the molecular properties of the enzyme modified "in vivo" by different physiological and pathophysiological stimuli.     

Integrative nuclear FGFR1 signaling (INFS) pathway mediates activation of the tyrosine hydroxylase gene by angiotensin II,depolarization and protein kinase C

The integrative nuclear FGFR1 signaling (INFS) pathway functions in association with cellular growth, differentiation, and regulation of gene expression, and is activated by diverse extracellular signals. Here we show that stimulation of angiotensin II (AII) receptors, depolarization, or activation protein kinase C (PKC) or adenylate cyclase all lead to nuclear accumulation of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) and FGFR1, association of FGFR1 with splicing factor-rich domains, and activation of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene promoter in bovine adrenal medullary cells (BAMC). The up-regulation of endogenous TH protein or a transfected TH promoter-luciferase construct by AII, veratridine, or PMA (but not by forskolin) is abolished by transfection with a dominant negative FGFR1TK-mutant which localizes to the nucleus and plasma membrane, but not by extracellularly acting FGFR1 antagonists suramin and inositolhexakisphosphate (IP6). Mechanism of TH gene activation by FGF-2 and FGFR1 was further investigated in BAMC and human TE671 cultures. TH promoter was activated by co-transfected HMW FGF-2 (which is exclusively nuclear) but not by cytoplasmic FGF-1 or extracellular FGFs. Promoter transactivation by HMWFGF-2 was accompanied by an up-regulation of FGFR1 specifically in the cell nucleus and was prevented FGFR1(TK-) but not by IP6 or suramin. The TH promoter was also transactivated by co-transfected wild-type FGFR1, which localizes to both to the nucleus and the plasma membrane, and by an exclusively nuclear, soluble FGFR1(SP-/NLS) mutant with an inserted nuclear localization signal. Activation of the TH promoter by nuclear FGFR1 and FGF-2 was mediated through the cAMP-responsive element (CRE) and was associated with induction of CREB- and CBP/P-300-containing CRE complexes. We propose a new model for gene regulation in which nuclear FGFR1 acts as a mediator of CRE transactivation by AII, cell depolarization, and PKC.     

Advanced Glycation End Product (AGE)-Receptor for AGE (RAGE) Signaling and Up-regulation of Egr-1 in Hypoxic Macrophages

Receptor for advanced glycation end product (RAGE)-dependent signaling has been implicated in ischemia/reperfusion injury in the heart, lung, liver, and brain. Because macrophages contribute to vascular perturbation and tissue injury in hypoxic settings, we tested the hypothesis that RAGE regulates early growth response-1 (Egr-1) expression in hypoxia-exposed macrophages. Molecular analysis, including silencing of RAGE, or blockade of RAGE with sRAGE (the extracellular ligand-binding domain of RAGE), anti-RAGE IgG, or anti-AGE IgG in THP-1 cells, and genetic deletion of RAGE in peritoneal macrophages, revealed that hypoxia-induced up-regulation of Egr-1 is mediated by RAGE signaling. In addition, the observation of increased cellular release of RAGE ligand AGEs in hypoxic THP-1 cells suggests that recruitment of RAGE in hypoxia is stimulated by rapid production of RAGE ligands in this setting. Finally, we show that mDia-1, previously shown to interact with the RAGE cytoplasmic domain, is essential for hypoxia-stimulated regulation of Egr-1, at least in part through protein kinase C βII, ERK1/2, and c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase signaling triggered by RAGE ligands. Our findings highlight a novel mechanism by which an extracellular signal initiated by RAGE ligand AGEs regulates Egr-1 in a manner requiring mDia-1.     

cDNA cloning and induction of tyrosine hydroxylase gene from the diamondback moth,Plutella xylostella

We cloned a full‐length tyrosine hydroxylase cDNA from the integument of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella. In the phylogenetic tree, tyrosine hydroxylase (PxTH) clustered with the other lepidopteran THs. Serine residues in the PxTH sequence, namely Ser²⁴, Ser³¹, Ser³⁵, Ser⁵³, and Ser⁶⁵, were predicted to be the target sites for phosphorylation based on PROSITE analysis. In particular, Ser³⁵ of PxTH is highly conserved across a broad phylogenetic range of animal taxa including rat and human. Western blot analysis using both PxTH‐Ab1 and PxTH‐Ab2 polyclonal antibodies verified the expression of PxTH in all life cycle stages of P. xylostella, namely the larval, pupal, and adult stages. To examine the possible immune function of PxTH in P. xylostella, PxTH gene expression was investigated by RT‐PCR and western blotting analysis after challenging P. xylostella with bacteria. PxTH expression was elevated 1 h post‐infection and was continued till 12 h of post‐infection relative to control larvae injected with sterile water. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Subcellular distribution of human tyrosine hydroxylase isoforms 1 and 4 in SH-SY5Y cells

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the key enzyme that controls the rate of synthesis of the catecholamines. SH-SY5Y cells with stable transfections of either human tyrosine hydroxylase isoform 1 (hTH1) or human tyrosine hydroxylase isoform 4 (hTH4) were used to determined the subcellular distribution of TH protein and phosphorylated TH, under basal conditions and after muscarine stimulation. Muscarine was previously shown to increase the phosphorylation of only serine 19 and serine 40 in hTH1 cells. Under basal conditions, the hTH1 and hTH4 proteins, their serine 19 phosphorylated forms and hTH1 phosphorylated at serine 40 were all similarly distributed; with ~80% in the cytosolic fraction, ~20% in the membrane fraction, and less than 1%, or not detectable, in the nuclear fraction. However, hTH4 phosphorylated at serine 71 had a significantly different distribution with ~65% cytosolic and ~35% membrane associated. Muscarine stimulation led to hTH1 being redistributed from the cytosol and nuclear fractions to the membrane fraction and hTH4 being redistributed from the cytosol to the nuclear fraction. These muscarine stimulated redistributions were not due to TH phosphorylation at serine 19, serine 40, or serine 71 and were most likely due to TH binding to proteins whose phosphorylation was increased by muscarine. This is the first study to show a difference in subcellular distribution between two human TH isoforms under basal and stimulated conditions.