Oxygen uptake and the potentiating effects of increased hemolymph lactate on oxygen transport during exercise in the blue crab,Callinectes sapidus

Summary At the onset of moderate swimming activity,Callinectes sapidus rapidly increased branchial ventilation, heart rate, and oxygen uptake, reaching steady state values in 2–3 min, with a half-time of 30 sec. Although O₂ extraction efficiency decreased slightly (50% to 43%) upon reaching steady state, O₂ uptake was increased 2.6 fold over resting (routine) levels. HemolymphP _{O 2} did not change during sustained (30–60 min) exercise, but a marked decrease in pH (7.60 to 7.10), associated with a 14-fold increase in hemolymph lactate concentration, caused decreases in both pre-and postbranchial O₂ content due to a large hemocyanin Bohr shift. The effect of the Bohr shift on O₂ binding, however, was minimized by an increase in hemocyanin O₂ affinity induced by lactate ions; the influence of lactate on hemocyaninP ₅₀ was shown to be the same in vivo and in vitro. As a result of the interaction between the Bohr and lactate effects, only slight increases were observed in the a-v O₂ difference (13%) and the quantitative role of hemocyanin in oxygen transport (11%) during exercise. The increase in O₂ delivery was therefore attributed primarily to a 2.3 fold increase in cardiac output (Fick estimate), resulting from increases in both heart rate (1.61 X) and stroke volume (1.42X). During exercise hemocyanin remained 21% oxygenated upon leaving the tissues, thus maintaining a substantial venous O₂ reserve which could be utilized to fuel more strenuous levels of exercise at least partly by aerobic pathways. The high hemolymph lactate levels, however, indicate that anaerobic metabolism makes a significant contribution to energy production even during moderate exercise. These results are similar to the respiratory and circulatory responses reported for other decapod crustaceans and fish during mild exercise.C. sapidus, however, appears to be highly resistant to fatigue, which correlates with its welldeveloped locomotor capabilities.     

Sucrose metabolism in spring and winter wheat in response to high irradiance, cold stress and cold acclimation

Effects of low‐temperature stress, cold acclimation and growth at high irradiance in a spring (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Katepwa) and a winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Monopol) were examined in leaves and crowns with respect to the sucrose utilisation and carbon allocation. Light‐saturated and carbon dioxide (CO₂)‐saturated rates of CO₂ assimilation were decreased by 50% in cold‐stressed spring and winter wheat cultivars. Cold‐ or high light‐acclimated Katepwa spring wheat maintained light‐saturated rates of CO₂ assimilation comparable to those of control spring wheat. In contrast, cold‐ or high light‐acclimated winter wheat maintained higher light and CO₂‐saturated rates of CO₂ assimilation than non‐acclimated controls. In leaves, during either cold stress, cold acclimation or acclimation to high irradiance, the sucrose/starch ratio increased by 5‐ to 10‐fold and neutral invertase activity increased by 2‐ to 2.5‐fold in both the spring and the winter wheat. In contrast, Monopol winter wheat, but not Katepwa spring wheat, exhibited a 3‐fold increase in leaf sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) activity, a 4‐fold increase in sucrose:sucrose fructosyl transferase activity and a 6.6‐fold increase in acid invertase upon cold acclimation. Although leaves of cold‐stressed and high light‐grown spring and winter wheat showed 2.3‐ to 7‐fold higher sucrose levels than controls, these plants exhibited a limited capacity to adjust either sucrose phosphate synthase or sucrose synthase activity (SS[s]). In addition, the acclimation to high light resulted in a 23–31% lower starch abundance and no changes at the level of fructan accumulation in leaves of either winter or spring wheat when compared with controls. However, high light‐acclimated winter wheat exhibited a 1.8‐fold higher neutral invertase activity and high light‐acclimated spring wheat exhibited an induction of SS(d) activity when compared with controls. Crowns of Monopol showed higher fructan accumulation than Katepwa upon cold and high light acclimation. We suggest that the differential adjustment of CO₂‐saturated rates of CO₂ assimilation upon cold acclimation in Monopol winter wheat, as compared with Katepwa spring wheat, is associated with the increased capacity of Monopol for sucrose utilisation through the biosynthesis of fructans in the leaves and subsequent export to the crowns. In contrast, the differential adjustment of CO₂‐saturated rates of CO₂ assimilation upon high light acclimation of Monopol appears to be associated with both increased fructan and starch accumulation in the crowns.     

Pre-and post-branchial blood respiratory status during acute hypercapnia or hypoxia in rainbow trout,Oncorhynchus mykiss

Simultaneous venous (pre-branchial) and arterial (post-branchial) extracorporeal blood circulations were utilized to monitor continuously the rapid and progressive effects of acute environmental hypercapnia (water partial pressure of CO₂ 4.8±0.2 torr) or hypoxia (water partial pressure of O₂ 25±2 torr) on oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions and pH in the blood of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). During hypercapnia, the CO₂ tension in the arterial blood increased from 1.7±0.1 to 6.2±0.2 torr within 20 min and this was associated with a decrease of arterial extracellular pH from 7.95±0.03 to 7.38±0.03; the acid-base status of the mixed venous blood changed in a similar fashion. The decrease in blood pH in vivo was greater than in blood equilibrated in vitro with a similar CO₂ tension indicating a significant metabolic component to the acidosis in vivo. Under normocapnic conditions, venous blood CO₂ tension was slightly higher than arterial blood CO₂ tension difference was abolished or reversed during the initial 25 min of hypercapnia indicating that CO₂ was absorbed from the water during this period. Arterial O₂ tension remained constant during hypercapnia; however, venous blood O₂ tension decreased significantly (from 22.0±2.6 to 9.0±1.0 torr) during the initial 10 min. Hypercapnia elicited the release of catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) into the blood. The adrenaline concentration increased from 6±3 to 418±141 nmol · l^-1 within 25 min; noradrenaline concentration increased from 3±0.5 to 50±21 nmol · l^-1 within 15 min. During hypoxia arterial blood O₂ tension declined progressively from 108.4±9.9 to 12.8±1.7 torr within 30 min. Venous blood O₂ tension initially was stable but then decreased abruptly as catecholamines were released into the circulation. The release of catecholamines occurred concomitantly with a sudden metabolic acidosis in both blood compartments and a rise in CO₂ tension in the mixed venous blood only.Abbreviations CCO₂ plasmatotal carbondioxide - CtO₂ blood oxygen content - PO₂ partial pressure of oxygen - PCO₂ partial pressure of carbon dioxide - PaO₂ arterial bloodPO₂ - PaCO₂ arterial bloodPCO₂ - PvCO₂ venous bloodPCO₂ - PwO₂ waterPO₂ - PwCO₂ waterPCO₂ - Hb haemoglobin - SHbO₂ haemoglobin oxygen saturation - HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography - rbc red blood cell(s) - Hct haematocrit     

Oxygen transport and cardiovascular responses in skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) exposed to acute hypoxia

Summary Responses to acute hypoxia were measured in skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) (1–3 kg body weight). Fish were prevented from making swimming movements by a spinal injection of lidocaine and were placed in front of a seawater delivery pipe to provide ram ventilation of the gills. Fish could set their own ventilation volumes by adjusting mouth gape. Heart rate, dorsal and ventral aortic blood pressures, and cardiac output were continuously monitored during normoxia (inhalant water (PO ₂>150 mmHg) and three levels of hypoxia (inhalant water PO ₂130, 90, and 50 mmHg). Water and blood samples were taken for oxygen measurements in fluids afferent and efferent to the gills. From these data, various measures of the effectiveness of oxygen transfer, and branchial and systemic vascular resistance were calculated. Despite high ventilation volumes (4–71·min^-1·kg^-1), tunas extract approximately 50% of the oxygen from the inhalant water, in part because high cardiac outputs (115–132 ml·min^-1·kg^-1) result in ventilation/perfusion conductance ratios (0.75–1.1) close to the theoretically ideal value of 1.0. Therefore, tunas have oxygen transfer factors (ml O₂·min^-1·mmHg^-1·kg^-1) that are 10–50 times greater than those of other fishes. The efficiency of oxygen transfer from water in tunas (65%) matches that measured in teleosts with ventilation volumes and order of magnitude lower. The high oxygen transfer factors of tunas are made possible, in part, by a large gill surface area; however, this appears to carry a considerable osmoregulatory cost as the metabolic rate of gills may account for up 70% of the total metabolism in spinally blocked (i.e., non-swimming) fish. During hypoxia, skipjack and yellowfin tunas show a decrease in heart rate and increase in ventilation volume, as do other teleosts. However, in tunas hypoxic bradycardia is not accompanied by equivalent increases, in stroke volume, and cardiac output falls as HR decreases. In both tuna species, oxygen consumption eventually must be maintained by drawing on substantial venous oxygen reserves. This occurs at a higher inhalant water PO₂ (between 130 and 90 mmHg) in skipjack tuna than in yellowfin tuna (between 90 and 50 mmHg). The need to draw on venous oxygen reserves would make it difficult to meet the oxygen demand of increasing swimming speed, which is a common response to hypoxia in both species. Because yellowfin tuna can maintain oxygen consumption at a seawater oxygen tension of 90 mmHg without drawing on venous oxygen reserves, they could probably survive for extended periods at this level of hypoxia.Abbreviations BP_da, BP_va dorsal, ventral aortic blood pressure - C _aO₂, C _vO₂ oxygen content of arterial, venous blood - DO₂ diffusion capacity - E_b, E_w effectiveness of O₂ uptake by blood, and from water, respectively - Hct hematocrit - HR heart rate - PCO₂ carbon dioxide tension - P _aCO₂, P _vCO₂ carbon dioxide tension of arterial and venous blood, respectively - PO₂ oxygen tension - P _aO₂, P _vO₂, P _iO₂, P _cO₂ oxygen tension of arterial blood, venous blood, and inspired and expired water, respectively - pHa, pHv pH of arterial and venous blood, respectively - P_w—b effective water to blood oxygen partial pressure difference - Pg partial pressure (tension) gradient - cardiac output - R vascular resistance - SV stroke volume - SEM standard error of mean - TO₂ transfer factor - U utilization - _g ventilation volume - O₂ oxygen consumption     

Noninvasive optical characterization of muscle blood flow,oxygenation, and metabolism in women with fibromyalgia

Introduction

Women with fibromyalgia (FM) have symptoms of increased muscular fatigue and reduced exercise tolerance, which may be associated with alterations in muscle microcirculation and oxygen metabolism. This study used near-infrared diffuse optical spectroscopies to noninvasively evaluate muscle blood flow, blood oxygenation and oxygen metabolism during leg fatiguing exercise and during arm arterial cuff occlusion in post-menopausal women with and without FM.

Methods

Fourteen women with FM and twenty-three well-matched healthy controls participated in this study. For the fatiguing exercise protocol, the subject was instructed to perform 6 sets of 12 isometric contractions of knee extensor muscles with intensity steadily increasing from 20 to 70% maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC). For the cuff occlusion protocol, forearm arterial blood flow was occluded via a tourniquet on the upper arm for 3 minutes. Leg or arm muscle hemodynamics, including relative blood flow (rBF), oxy- and deoxy-hemoglobin concentration ([HbO₂] and [Hb]), total hemoglobin concentration (THC) and blood oxygen saturation (StO₂), were continuously monitored throughout protocols using a custom-built hybrid diffuse optical instrument that combined a commercial near-infrared oximeter for tissue oxygenation measurements and a custom-designed diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) flowmeter for tissue blood flow measurements. Relative oxygen extraction fraction (rOEF) and oxygen consumption rate (rVO₂) were calculated from the measured blood flow and oxygenation data. Post-manipulation (fatiguing exercise or cuff occlusion) recovery in muscle hemodynamics was characterized by the recovery half-time, a time interval from the end of manipulation to the time that tissue hemodynamics reached a half-maximal value.

Results

Subjects with FM had similar hemodynamic and metabolic response/recovery patterns as healthy controls during exercise and during arterial occlusion. However, tissue rOEF during exercise in subjects with FM was significantly lower than in healthy controls, and the half-times of oxygenation recovery (Δ[HbO₂] and Δ[Hb]) were significantly longer following fatiguing exercise and cuff occlusion.

Conclusions

Our results suggest an alteration of muscle oxygen utilization in the FM population. This study demonstrates the potential of using combined diffuse optical spectroscopies (i.e., NIRS/DCS) to comprehensively evaluate tissue oxygen and flow kinetics in skeletal muscle.     

Blood oxygen transport in stressed striped bass (Morone saxatilis): role of beta-adrenergic responses

Summary Strenuous 5-min exercise resulted in a 0.3 unit drop in the dorsal aortic pH of striped bass. The acidosis was metabolic: the blood lactate concentration increased during the exercise, whereas blood CO₂ tension decreased. Dorsal aortic oxygen content was maintained despite the acidosis. This was a result of increased blood O₂ tension, haemoglobin concentration and red cell volume, decreased cellular nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) concentration, and decreased proton gradient across the red cell membrane. When the fish were treated with the beta-antagonist, propranolol, before the exercise, the arterial oxygen content decreased significantly in the stress. The mean cellular haemoglobin concentration and cellular NTP concentration increased slightly, and the proton gradient across the red cell membrane decreased less than in control exercise. These results show that the beta-adrenergic responses of striped bass red cells play an important role in maintaining the arterial O₂ content in stress.Abbreviation NTP nucleoside triphosphates     

Ventilation response to CO2 and exercise-induced hypoxaemia in master athletes

Exercise-induced hypoxaemia (EIH) in master athletes may be related to a diminished exercise hyper- pnoea. The aim of this study was to determine whether EIH is associated with a change in the sensitivity of the ventilation response to activation of the central chemoreceptors. The ventilation response to CO₂ was measured in nine elderly untrained men (UT) [mean age 66.3 (SEM 3.1) years] and nine master athletes (MA) [mean age 62.7 (SEM 0.8) years] at rest, during moderate exercise (40% maximal oxygen uptake, V˙O_2max), and during strenuous exercise (70% V˙O_2max) using the rebreathing method. Our results showed that the ventilation response to CO₂ did not differ with endurance training and/or exercise, that the threshold of the CO₂ response (Th) increased with exercise (P < 0.001), that the increase in Th in MA was higher than in UT between rest and moderate exercise [ΔTh_0–40: 8.55 (SEM 1.8) vs 3.06 (SEM 1.72) mmHg, P < 0.05], and that ΔTh_0–40 and Th during moderate exercise were negatively correlated with arterial O₂ saturation during maximal exercise (r = 0.50, P<0.05). We concluded therefore that exercise-induced hypoxaemia in master athletes may not be due to a lower ventilation response to CO₂, but may be partly related to a greater increase in Th during moderate exercise. Accepted: 18 August 1997     

Accuracy of pulse oximetry during intense exercise under severe hypoxic conditions

There is a growing need to measure arterial oxygen saturation with a non-invasive method during heavy exercise under severe hypoxic conditions. Although the accuracy of pulse oximetry has been challenged by several authors, it has not been done under extreme conditions. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of a pulse oximeter (Satlite, Datex, Finland) during exercise under hypoxic conditions where arterial oxygen saturation was below 75%, simulating exercise at extreme altitude. Ten healthy non-smoking men performed two exercise studies of 30 min under normoxia and under hypoxia on two consecutive days. The exercise intensity was 80% of maximal O₂ consumption of O_2max. Arterial oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry was corrected (S _pO_2[corr]) according to previously published equations and was compared to arterial oxygen saturation (S _aO₂) in blood samples taken simultaneously from the radial artery. Reference arterial saturation values ranged from 57.2 to 97.6% for the whole data set. This data set was split according to low (S _aO₂ ≤ 75%) and high (S _aO₂ > 75%) S _aO₂ values. The error of pulse oximetry (S _pO_2[corr]− S _aO₂) was 2.05 (0.87)% [mean (SD)] and 1.80 (1.81)% for high and low S _aO₂ values, respectively. S _pO_2[corr] and S _aO₂ were highly correlated (r = 0.93, SEE = 1.8) for low values. During high-intensity constant workload under severe hypoxic conditions, once corrected, pulse oximetry provides an estimate of S _aO₂ with a mean error of 2%. Thus, the correction previously described for S _pO₂ values above 75% saturation applies also to S _pO₂ values in the range of 57–75% during exercise under hypoxic conditions. Accepted: 27 February 1997     

Predictability of PaO2 in different inert gas-oxygen environments

Recent experimentation with metabolic changes in rats exposed to thermally isoconductive environments has involved the use of inert gas-oxygen mixtures with different total pressures (PT) and inspired oxygen fractions (F₁O₂). To determine the F_IO₂ for each mixture that would result in similar arterial oxygen pressures (P _a O₂) and saturations (OS), arterial blood of dogs breathing the mixtures through a mask was analyzed for pH,^PO₂,^PCO₂, and OS. Using P_IO₂'s calculated from the alveolar gas equation as a theoretical basis, the oxygen partial pressure for the helium mixture had to be increased by 5.6% while that in argon decreased by 10.2% below the computed values to obtain P _a O₂'s acceptably similar to those resulting from air exposure. No consistent variation in pH, P _a CO₂, and OS were apparent. Based on the data presented, which were obtained under highly specialized conditions, it appears that the use of helium and argon as diluent gases may significantly affect arterial oxygen tension.     

Gas exchange and blood gases of Puna teal (Anas versicolor puna) embryos in the Peruvian Andes

Oxygen consumption, air cell gases, hematology, blood gases and pH of Puna teal (Anas versicolor puna) embryos were measured at the altitude at which the eggs were laid (4150 m) in the Peruvian Andes. In contrast to the metabolic depression described by other studies on avian embryos incubated above 3700 m, O₂ consumption of Puna teal embryos was higher than even that of some lowland avian embryos at equivalent body masses. Air cell O₂ tensions dropped from about 80 toor in eggs with small embryos to about 45 toor in eggs containing a 14-g embryo; simultaneously air cell CO₂ tension rose from virtually negligible amounts to around 26 torr. Arterial and venous O₂ tensions (32–38 and 10–12 toor, respectively, in 12- to 14-g embryos) were lower than described previously in similarly-sized lowland wild avian embryos or chicken embryos incubated in shells with restricted gas exchange. The difference between air cell and arterial O₂ tensions dropped significantly during incubation to a minimum of 11 torr, the lowest value recorded in any avian egg. Blood pH (mean 7.49) did not vary significantly during incubation. Hemoglobin concentration and hematocrits rose steadily throughout incubation to 11.5 g · 100 ml^-1 and 39.9%, respectively, in 14-g embryos.Abbreviations PO₂ partial pressure gradient of O₂ - BM body mass - D diffusion coefficient - G gas conductance (cm³·s^-1·torr^-1) - conductance to water vapor - IP internal pipping of embryos - P _ACO₂ partial pressure of carbon dioxide in air cell - P _AO₂ partial pressure of oxygen in air cell - P _aCO₂ partial pressure of carbon dioxide in arterial blood - P _aCO₂ partial pressure of oxygen in arteries - P _H barometric pressure (torr) - PCO₂ partial pressure of carbon dioxide - P _IO₂ partial pressure in ambiant air - PO₂ partial pressure of oxygen - P _VCO₂ venous carbon dioxide partial pressure - P _VO₂ mixed venous oxygen partial pressure - SE standard error - VO ₂ oxygen consumption     

Effect of ammonia on respiratory functions of blood of Tilapia zilli

The present paper attempts an examination of different changes of blood respiratory properties when Tilapia zilli is exposed to ammonia in three sublethal concentrations (1.1, 2.2 and 3.3 mg NH₃ l⁻¹) for 2 weeks. The results revealed that oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressures (P_O2 and P_CO2) were changed differently and irregularly both in the caudal artery and in the heart. The acid–base status (pH, HCO⁻₃, TCO₂ and base excess) of arterial and venous blood changed towards alkalosis during the first week. These changes were exaggerated during the second week of ammonia exposure. O₂ saturation of arterial blood was decreased, while that of venous blood was increased due to the disturbances in blood gas transport and exchange mechanisms and in the acid–base status. The oxygen equilibrium curve was shifted to the left and P₅₀ was decreased during most of the experimental periods.     

Quantitative aspects of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange through the lungs in Ocypode ceratophthalmus (Crustacea: Decapoda) during rest and exercise in water and air

Ghost crabs Ocypode ceratophthalmus were exercised in air and water to measure CO₂ and O₂ exchange rates using the method of instantaneous measurements of oxygen consumption rate (MO₂) where applicable. Average heart rate increased from 100 to nearly 400 pulses per minute after five minutes of exercise on a treadmill at a run rate of 0.133 m s^?1. It took less than a minute for oxygen taken up through the lung epithelium from the air inside the branchial cavity to reach the maximal oxygen consumption rate of 26.1 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1. Resting MO₂ was 4.06 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 in air, but decreased to 3.37 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 in seawater. Radioactive CO₂ from injected l-lactate is released linearly by the lung. The percent accumulated 14-CO₂ in exhaled air, plotted against time, intersects zero time on the x -axis, indicating rapid gas exchange at the lung surface. The P ₅₀ values for native haemocyanin of 4.89 mm Hg before exercise, and 8.99 mm Hg after exercise, are typical of a high-affinity haemocyanin usually associated with terrestrial crabs. The current notion that Ocypode ceratophthalmus drown when submerged in seawater was not substantiated by our experiments. MO₂ in seawater increased from 3.37 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 for resting crabs to 5.72 mmol O₂ kg^?1 h^?1 during exercise. When submerged by wave-seawater in the natural environment and during exercise in respirometer-seawater O. ceratophthalmus do not swim but, having a specific density of 1.044, float nearly weightless with a minimum of body movements.     

The oxygen delivery response to acute hypoxia during incremental knee extension exercise differs in active and trained males

Background

It is well known that hypoxic exercise in healthy individuals increases limb blood flow, leg oxygen extraction and limb vascular conductance during knee extension exercise. However, the effect of hypoxia on cardiac output, and total vascular conductance is less clear. Furthermore, the oxygen delivery response to hypoxic exercise in well trained individuals is not well known. Therefore our aim was to determine the cardiac output (Doppler echocardiography), vascular conductance, limb blood flow (Doppler echocardiography) and muscle oxygenation response during hypoxic knee extension in normally active and endurance-trained males.

Methods

Ten normally active and nine endurance-trained males (VO_2max = 46.1 and 65.5 mL/kg/min, respectively) performed 2 leg knee extension at 25, 50, 75 and 100% of their maximum intensity in both normoxic and hypoxic conditions (FIO₂ = 15%; randomized order). Results were analyzed with a 2-way mixed model ANOVA (group × intensity).

Results

The main finding was that in normally active individuals hypoxic sub-maximal exercise (25 – 75% of maximum intensity) brought about a 3 fold increase in limb blood flow but decreased stroke volume compared to normoxia. In the trained group there were no significant changes in stroke volume, cardiac output and limb blood flow at sub-maximal intensities (compared to normoxia). During maximal intensity hypoxic exercise limb blood flow increased approximately 300 mL/min compared to maximal intensity normoxic exercise.

Conclusion

Cardiorespiratory fitness likely influences the oxygen delivery response to hypoxic exercise both at a systemic and limb level. The increase in limb blood flow during maximal exercise in hypoxia (both active and trained individuals) suggests a hypoxic stimulus that is not present in normoxic conditions.

     

Stress response in two Antarctic teleosts (Notothenia coriiceps Richardson andChaenocephalus aceratus Lönnberg) following capture and surgery

Blood chemistry and haematological parameters have been determined in two Antarctic teleosts,Notothenia coriiceps Richardson andChaenocephalus aceratus Lönnberg, held at around 1°C.Notothenia coriiceps has a low haemoglobin content compared to tem-perate-zone species, whereasC. aceratus apparently lacks respiratory pigments. Blood samples were obtained by cardiac puncture following landing or using chronically implanted post-branchial arterial cannulae. Although both species showed a similar acidosis on capture (arterial pH as low as 7.5 versus the final recovery value of around 7.9),C. aceratus took 48 h to reestablish baseline values whileN. coriiceps recovered within 12 h, despite initially showing a greater degree of hypercapnic hypoxia. Surgery led to a more severe disturbance of acid-base regulation inN. coriiceps thanC. aceratus (arterial pH of 7.5 versus 7.8) but needed only half as long for recovery. A progressive decrease in arterial oxygen tension and increase in arterial carbon dioxide tension (both more pronounced inN. coriiceps) with level of acidosis was observed down to arteria pH 7.2 InC. aceratus this was accompanied by a rise in blood lactate (up to 10 mmol·1^-1 in some individuals), whileN. coriiceps showed only a modest and transient lactacidosis. Stress inN. coriiceps therefore induces primarily a respiratory, rather than a metabolic acidosis, whereas inC. aceratus both components are present. A differential response to stress is also indicated by an elevated, though low noradrenaline titre inN. coriiceps following surgery and capture, whileC. aceratus was little affected by surgery. However, both species show an unusually weak catecholamine response to induced stress.Abbreviations pH/T °C thermal sensitivity of pH - Ad adrenaline - bw body weight - C.CO₂ total carbon dioxide content - C.O₂ total oxygen content - ED ₅₀ Median effective dose - EDTA ethylenediaminetertra-acetic acid - Hb haemoglobin - Hct haematocrit - HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography - lac lactate - MCH mean corpuscular haemoglobin content - MCHC mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration - MCV mean cell volume - MS222 tricaine methane sulphonate - NAd noradrenaline - P _aCO₂ arterial carbon dioxide tension - P _aO₂ arterial oxygen tension - pHa arterial blood pH - RBCC red blood cell count - SW sea water - T _a ambient air temperature - VO₂ oxygen consumption     

The effect of lower body positive pressure on the cardiovascular response to exercise in sedentary and endurance-trained persons with paraplegia

Exercise intolerance in persons with paraplegia (PARAS) is thought to be secondary to insufficient venous return and a subnormal cardiac output at a given oxygen uptake. However, these issues have not been resolved fully. This study utilized lower-body positive pressure (LBPP) as an intervention during arm crank exercise in PARAS in order to examine this issue. Endurance-trained (TP, n= 7) and untrained PARAS (UP, n= 10) with complete lesions between T6 and T12, and a control group consisting of sedentary able-bodied subjects (SAB, n= 10) were tested. UP and TP subjects demonstrated a diminished cardiac output (via CO₂ rebreathing) during exercise compared to SAB subjects. Peak oxygen uptake (V˙O_2peak) remained unchanged for all groups following LBPP. LBPP resulted in a significant decrease in heart rate (HR) in UP and TP (P≤0.05), but not SAB subjects. LBPP produced an insignificant increase in cardiac output (Q˙) and stroke volume (SV). The significant decrease in HR in both PARA groups may indicate a modest hemodynamic benefit of LBPP at higher work rates where circulatory sufficiency may be most compromised. We conclude that PARAS possess a diminished cardiac output during exercise compared to the able-bodied, and LBPP fails to ameliorate significantly their exercise response irrespective of the conditioning level. These results support previous observations of a lower cardiac output during exercise in PARAS, but indicate that lower-limb blood pooling may not be a primary limitation to arm exercise in paraplegia. Accepted: 11 December 1997     

The Measurement of Respiratory and Metabolic Parameters of Patients and Controls Before and After Incremental Exercise on Bicycle: Supporting the Effort Syndrome Hypothesis?

Hyperventilation (HV) occurring out of appropriate context, under some circumstances, can be potentially harmful to health. Nixon (1994) discusses convincingly the negative effects of long-term HV on the alkaloid buffering system and the potential challenge to a person's health status. Using capnography to measure respiration, percent expired CO ₂ , to determine the anaerobic threshold during incremental exercise (the Effort Test), Nixon (1994) documented the onset of metabolic acidosis followed by alkalosis, secondary to the alkaloid buffering system response. Nixon (1994) hypothesized that recurring HV can lead to depletion of the alkaloid buffering system. By combining capnography, during the Effort Test, with analysis of blood gases and specific electrolytes, the effort-syndrome hypothesis was further tested in the present study. Thirteen patients with various kinds of stress-related problems were compared with four control participants. Pretest blood gases, from capillary blood, were collected after 10 minutes rest and 10 minutes of incremental exercise. Exhalation CO ₂ , oxygen saturation, and traditional psychophysiological parameters were measured continuously during the experimental condition. Data from capillary blood and exhalation CO ₂ are reviewed. Change in patients' alkali buffering system supports the prediction made by Nixon (1994). The complexity of the data as well as methodological procedures of this study warrant a more sophisticated design, with more clearly defined functional analysis.     

Development of a new instrument to measure oxygen saturation and total hemoglobin volume in local skin by near-infrared spectroscopy and its clinical application

The oxygen saturation (StO₂) and total hemoglobin volume in cutaneous blood are closely related to cutaneous metabolism and are important factors in determining the skin color. Most conventional apparatuses for the measurement of cutaneous metabolism have been designed to evaluate qualitative changes in the oxyhemoglobin volume, deoxyhemoglobin volume, and their sum (total Hb volume) relative to their baseline values. In this study, we developed an instrument for non-invasive evaluation of individual and regional differences in StO₂ and Hb volume, a system unaffected by melanin (Kao PSA system model III), and examined the validity of its application. First, changes in StO₂ and total Hb volume in the antebrachial region during venous occlusion and devascularization by compression of the brachial region were evaluated. Changes in total Hb volume following venous occlusion were found to reflect the cutaneous blood flow. Also, StO₂ was considered to reflect the state of oxygen consumption by the skin, because it was markedly reduced during devascularization. Next, the subjects were exposed to graded hypobaric conditions, and the relationships among StO₂, arterial blood oxygen saturation (SaO₂), and venous blood oxygen saturation (SvO₂) were studied. StO₂ showed significant positive correlations with SaO₂ (r=0.811, P<0.001) and SvO₂ (r=0.966, P<0.001), and its correlation with SvO₂ was particularly strong. Therefore, StO₂ was found to be closely dependent on SvO₂. Lastly, StO₂, total Hb volume, and other parameters were measured in healthy women (aged 20–69 years), and their regional differences and age- associated changes were evaluated. These regional differences (angle of mouth > cheek > forehead) and age-associated decreases in StO₂ are considered to be caused by the age-associated decreases in the cutaneous blood flow. Received: 21 May 1999 / Revised: 19 November 1999 / Accepted: 24 November 1999     

Systemic oxygen extraction during incremental exercise in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

To determine if decreased systemic oxygen (O₂) extraction contributes to the exercise limit in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), 40 consecutive incremental cycle ergometer exercise tests performed by such patients, from which a “log-log” lactate threshold (LT) was identified, were compared to those of 8 patients with left ventricular failure (LVF) and 10 normal controls. Pulmonary gas exchange and minute ventilation were measured continuously and arterial blood gas tensions, pH, and lactate concentrations were sampled each minute. Cardiac output (Q˙ _c) was measured by first-pass radionuclide ventriculography. The systemic O₂ extraction ratio (O₂ER) was calculated as arterial − mixed venous O₂ content difference (C _aO₂ − C _vO₂)/C _aO₂. Peak exercise O₂ uptake (V˙O_2peak) was markedly reduced in both COPD and LVF [41 (3) and 42 (3)% predicted, respectively], compared to controls [89 (2)% predicted, P < 0.0001 for each]. Similarly, the LT occurred at a low percentage of predicted maximal oxygen consumption in both COPD and LVF [25 (2) and 27 (3)%] compared to normals [46 (3)%, P < 0.0001 for each]. The systemic O₂ER at peak exercise was severely reduced in COPD [0.36 (0.02)] compared to the other groups [P < 0.0001 for each], for whom it was nearly identical [0.58 (0.03) vs 0.63 (0.04), LVF vs control, P > 0.05]. In the COPD group, an early LT correlated with reduced systemic O₂ER at peak exercise (r = 0.64, P < 0.0001), but not with any index of systemic O₂ delivery. These data suggest that lactic acidemia during exercise in patients with severe COPD is better related to abnormal systemic O₂ extraction than to its delivery and contributes to the exercise limit. Accepted: 10 March 1998     

Spinal cord transection inhibits HR reduction in anesthetized rats immersed in an artificial CO<Subscript>2</Subscript>-hot spring bath

Like humans, the heart rate (HR) of anesthetized rats immersed in CO₂-water is lower than that when immersed in tap water at the same temperature. To investigate the afferent signal pathway in the mechanism of HR reduction, Wistar rats were anesthetized with urethane and then the spinal cord was transected between T₄ and T₅. The animals were immersed up to the axilla in a bathtub of tap-water (CO₂ contents: 10–20 mg·l⁻¹) or of CO₂-water (965–1,400 mg·l⁻¹) at 35°C while recording HR, arterial blood pressure, and arterial blood gas parameters (PaCO₂, PaO₂, pH). Arterial blood gas parameters did not change during immersion, irrespective of CO₂ concentration of the bath water, whereas the HR was reduced in the CO₂-water bath. The inhalation of CO₂-mixed gas (5 % CO₂, 20 % O₂, 75 % N₂) resulted in increased levels of blood gases and an increased HR during immersion in all types of water tested. The HR reduction observed in sham transected control animals immersed in CO₂-water disappeared after subsequent spinal cord transection. These results show that the dominant afferent signal pathway to the brain, which is involved in inducing the reduced HR during immersion in CO₂-water, is located in the neuronal route and not in the bloodstream.     

The physiological responses of freshwater rainbow trout,Oncorhynchus mykiss,during acutely lethal copper exposure

Acutely lethal (24 h) exposure of adult rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to 4.9 mol copper·l^-1 in fresh water (pH 7.9, [Ca²⁺]0.8 mEq·l^-1) caused a rapid decline of plasma Na⁺ and Cl^- and arterial O₂ tension, and initially a pronounced tachycardia. The internal hypoxia probably resulted from histopathologies observed in the gills of fish exposed to copper, such as cell swelling, thickening and curling of the lamellae, and haematomas. Copper cannot therefore be considered purely as an ionoregulatory toxicant during acutely lethal conditions. Mortality during exposure to copper could not simply be explained by the plasma ionic dilution, nor by the internal hypoxia, since arterial O₂ content remained relatively unchanged. Secondary to the ionoregulatory and respiratory disturbances were a number of deleterious physiological responses which included a massive haemoconcentration (haematocrit values as high as 60%) and a doubling of the mean arterial blood pressure. The time-course of these changes suggest that cardiac failure was the final cause of death. In this respect copper exposure resembles low pH exposure in freshwater trout (Milligan and Wood 1982). Copper and H⁺ appear to be similar in both the primary site of their toxic action (the gills) and the secondary physiological consequences which result from acutely lethal exposures. Furthermore, the acute toxicity syndrome observed may be common to many metals which cause ionoregulatory and/or respiratory problems in freshwater fish.Abbreviations C _aO₂ arterial oxygen content - FR water flow rate - Hb haemoglobin - Hct haematocrit - H _m ⁺ net metabolic acid load - IU international unit - MABP mean arterial blood pressure - MCHC mean corpuscular haemoglobin content - MO₂ rate of oxygen consumption - P _aCO₂ arterial carbon dioxide tension - P _aO₂ arterial oxygen partial pressure - T _amm total ammonia (=NH₃+NH ₄ ⁺ ) - TCO₂ total carbon dioxide - TOC total organic carbon - %Hb–O₂ percentage of haemoglobin saturated with oxygen