整合医学在急诊科危重病救治中的应用

整合医学是医学发展的必然方向和必由之路,强调将医学各领域最先进的理论知识和临床各专科最有效的实践经验进行有机整合,是更加符合人体健康和疾病治疗的新医学体系。急诊科危重病员往往同时存在多脏器功能障碍,救治中应运用整体观、整合观和医学观的原则,切实解决临床实践中遇到的问题。当前,有必要在组织管理层面上借力整合医学推动急诊医学的建设与发展。     

Occupational medicine programs for animal research facilities

Occupational medicine is a key component of a comprehensive occupational health and safety program in support of laboratory animal research and production facilities. The mission of the department is to maximize employee health and productivity utilizing a population health management approach, which includes measurement and analysis of health benefits utilization. The department works in close cooperation with other institutional health and safety professionals to identify potential risks from exposure to physical, chemical, and biological hazards in the workplace. As soon as exposures are identified, the department is responsible for formulating and providing appropriate medical surveillance programs. Occupational medicine is also responsible for targeted delivery of preventive and wellness services; management of injury, disease, and disability; maintenance of medical information; and other clinic services required by the institution. Recommendations are provided for the organization and content of occupational medicine programs for animal research facilities.     

The academic medical centre: an idea whose time has come.

Interdependence of faculties of medicine or health sciences and teaching hospitals is central to the academic medical centre''s three "products": education, research and clinical service. Whether a voluntary association, partnership, joint venture or single entity, the strength of the association of member institutions must lie in mutual dependency. With the potential of reducing costs and increasing effectiveness through administrative efficiency and rationalization, especially of planning and setting priorities, the academic medical centre can outstrip its individual member institutions in contributing to the solution of Canada''s present and future challenges in health care.     

Making a difference--women, medicine, and the twenty-first century

Women can and should make a difference in how medical care is given in the future. The increased number of women physicians presents an opportunity to make a significant impact on the quality of medical care. Data is provided on the number of women applicants to medical school, matriculants and graduates, specialty choices, the status of women in academic medicine, and the income of women physicians. Four aspects of the environment that portend important changes for medicine in the future are identified: scientific developments, alternative delivery systems and the corporate practice of medicine, the aging population and other demographic changes, and the expanding number of physicians. Some of these changes suggest opportunities for making a difference in the traditional specialties of medicine, in providing care to underserved populations, in research careers, in the shortage areas of preventive medicine and public health, occupational medicine, child psychiatry, and physical medicine and rehabilitation, and in new areas such as community pediatrics, behavioral pediatrics, and adolescent medicine. There are many choices and many decisions to be made, and each individual can choose to make a difference.     

An experience in Japanese academic medicine.

The Japanese health care system has been highly praised for its universal access, freedom of patient choice, maintenance of a private system, and creative funding. Japanese citizens enjoy general good health, low infant mortality, and long life expectancy. Nevertheless, aspects of Japanese medical education, both graduate and undergraduate, and the structure of academic departments differ from those seen in the United States. A sabbatical spent teaching general internal medicine in Japan provided the experience for this review of the Japanese system. I describe the structure and function of departments of medicine and observations made at daily clinical teaching exercises in hospitals throughout the country.     

A Unique Teaching Experience: Medical Student Care of Northern Isolated Native Communities

To explore the benefits that students may derive from assuming responsibility for the medical care of people in isolated communities under a minimum of supervision, two volunteer third-year medical students spent the summer of 1964 caring for 1600 Indians and Metis at Wabasca, Alberta. They worked closely with the local public health nurse and a Catholic nursing sister who maintained a small hospital. Considerable experience was gained in preventive medicine and in the diagnosis and management of a wide variety of illnesses, using basic clinical skills and minimal laboratory facilities. The pressure of responsibility was particularly beneficial. It provided a potent impetus to learn and perfect skills in clinical medicine and basic therapeutics. Visits by an interested clinician every two to three weeks provided the optimum combination of responsibility and supervision. The existence of some local health organization was considered helpful.     

Universities and medical schools: reflections on a half-century of Canadian medical education.

After 50 years of accelerated development, universities and medical schools have entered a period of uncertainty and instability. The Flexnerian paradigm of medical education, rooted in biomedical science and conducted under the aegis of a university, reached its apotheosis by the late 1960s and the early 1970s. Fuelled by the introduction of comprehensive, government-sponsored health care insurance and advances in technology, the demand for health care professionals and for access to facilities increased sharply. Medical education, research and advanced clinical services expanded dramatically aided by the emergence of academic health sciences centres and accompanied by a wave of medical curriculum reform. Now medical schools must strike a dynamic balance in responding to the continued expansion of knowledge and technology, the demand for social equity and the exigencies of prolonged fiscal constraint. They must also balance the biological and sociological approaches to medicine in establishing the foundations for the future development of Canadian medical education.     

Naturopathy: a critical appraisal

"Naturopathic medicine" is a recent manifestation of the field of naturopathy, a 19th-century health movement espousing "the healing power of nature." "Naturopathic physicians" now claim to be primary care physicians proficient in the practice of both "conventional" and "natural" medicine. Their training, however, amounts to a small fraction of that of medical doctors who practice primary care. An examination of their literature, moreover, reveals that it is replete with pseudoscientific, ineffective, unethical, and potentially dangerous practices. Despite this, naturopaths have achieved legal and political recognition, including licensure in 13 states and appointments to the US Medicare Coverage Advisory Committee. This dichotomy can be explained in part by erroneous representations of naturopathy offered by academic medical centers and popular medical Web sites.     

Health Data and the Physician

California Health Data Corporation was formed to create better health data resources under the direction of hospitals and medicine. Highest priority is being given to developing information systems that will serve physicians, as well as those who are usually considered health data users. This is illustrated in CHD''s first major activity, sponsorship of a medical record information system for California hospitals. This system is designed first of all to provide better information for medical staff committees, and as a byproduct to provide data flow into a CHD data bank. For the practicing physician, the significance of CHD is that the organization will attempt to develop information systems that will help the medical profession maintain its central role in guiding the present and future patterns of health care.     

Perceptions of family medicine and career choice among first year medical students: a cross-sectional survey in a Turkish medical school

Public attitudes to family medicine in Turkey have lagged behind its rapid academic development. The effect of undergraduate training in primary care on medical students' attitudes to family medicine has not been assessed. Objectives of this study were to assess the attitudes of first year medical students at Uludag University School of Medicine in Bursa, Turkey to family medicine and to determine their career aspirations. The study was a survey of the first year medical class in 2003-2004. The response rate was 95% (248/261 students). Students were positive about their choice of medicine as a career but had negative opinions of general practice. Female students were more positive in this respect. Initial preference was for specialization in fields other than general practice with little knowledge of the academic specialty of family medicine. Greater undergraduate exposure to family medicine is needed in order to increase knowledge of the field and influence student career choices.     

Training Physicians for Primary Care: Trends and Hazards

Programs to train physicians more effectively for careers in primary care are being organized within academic departments in internal medicine and pediatrics, while the number of training programs in family practice continues to grow rapidly. However, the field of primary care training is expanding without a common vocabulary and with inadequate communication between the specialties involved.If decisions concerning health care policy are to be made rationally, the development of multiple distinct models for primary health care delivery must be encouraged and these models must then be evaluated.The distinction between family practice and family medicine must be made clear if the latter discipline is to realize its potential application to all specialties.The relative exclusion of family practice from universities and the absence of experienced practitioners in university primary care programs are conditions that threaten the future of both types of programs and deserve thoughtful attention from medical educators.     

Teaching and training in geriatric medicine in the European Union

In 1993 about 20% of the population in the 15 'old' member countries of the European Union (EU) was over 60 years of age and this percentage will increase to more than 25% in 2020. These developments play a key role for the investments in education and training to meet societies needs for health care services. In 2002 about 25% of the medical students in the 'old' EU did not receive any education in geriatric medicine. A question is who will provide the services for older people in related areas, like social care, community care, acute care in the hospitals, long-term care, permanent care and care for psychiatric patients? Geriatric medicine has been recognized as an independent specialty in 8 of the 15 member countries of the 'old' EU. In all EU member states the governments are autonomous regarding all aspects of health care services, including the recognition of specialties and specialist training programmes. A two years training in internal medicine has been recommended in the EU, followed by another four years of training in geriatric medicine. The specialist training has a hospital oriented character, however, it includes also community care and other institutionalised care like nursing homes. The curriculum should contain: biological, social, psychological and medical aspects of common diseases and disturbances in older people. A problem in many EU countries is the shortage of well trained researchers and leading persons for academic positions for geriatric medicine. In a number of countries chairs at the universities remain vacant for long periods of time or even disappear. Good services in the health care for older people need a high quality curriculum and training programme.     

Engaged humanities: moral work in the precincts of medicine

The medical humanities emerged in the late 1960s in response to shared concerns among a group of hospital chaplains, academic clinicians, and moral theologians and philosophers about the growing power of a technological imperative and a perceived trend toward depersonalization in medicine. Gathering themselves originally under the rubric of "health and human values," these reformers launched a new field of intellectual work and practice reminiscent of the revival of liberal learning spawned by the Renaissance humanists, who endeavored to link humanistic ideals to professional practice in the workaday world of their time. The task of appropriating and adapting the studia humanitatis to our time and circumstances is crucial to defining the evolving identity of the medical humanities field.     

The effect of health care reform on academic medicine in Canada. Editorial Committee of the Canadian Institute for Academic Medicine.

Although Canadian health care reform has constrained costs and improved efficiency, it has had a profound and mixed effect on Canadian academic medicine. Teaching hospitals have been reduced in number and size, and in patient programs have shifted to ambulatory and community settings. Specialized care programs are now multi-institutional and multidisciplinary. Furthermore, the influence of regional planning bodies has grown markedly. Although these changes have likely improved clinical service, their impact on the quality of clinical education is uncertain. Within the academic clinical department, recruitment of young faculty has been greatly complicated by constraints on licensing, billing numbers, fee-for-service income and research funding. The departmental practice plan based on university funds and fee-for-service income is being replaced by less favourable funding arrangements. However, emphasis on multidisciplinary programs has rendered these departments more flexible in structure. The future of Canadian academic medicine depends on an effective alliance with government. Academia and government must agree, particularly on human-resource requirements, research objectives and the delivery of clinical and academic programs in regional and community settings. The establishment of focal points for academic health sciences planning within academic health sciences centres and within governments would assist in these developments. Finally, government and the academic health sciences sector must work together to remove the current impediments to the recruitment of highly qualified young faculty.     

To what extent can traditional medicine contribute a complementary or alternative solution to malaria control programmes?

Recent studies on traditional medicine (TM) have begun to change perspectives on TM effects and its role in the health of various populations. The safety and effectiveness of some TMs have been studied, paving the way to better collaboration between modern and traditional systems. Traditional medicines still remain a largely untapped health resource: they are not only sources of new leads for drug discoveries, but can also provide lessons and novel approaches that may have direct public-health and economic impact. To optimize such impact, several interventions have been suggested, including recognition of TM's economic and medical worth at academic and health policy levels; establishing working relationships with those prescribing TM; providing evidence for safety and effectiveness of local TM through appropriate studies with malaria patients; spreading results for clinical recommendations and health policy development; implementing and evaluating results of new health policies that officially integrate TM.     

Science in the Service of Patients: Lessons from the Past in the Moral Battle for the Future of Medical Education

Medical schools instill a classic moral standoff in which the responsibility for the betterment of the patient stands at odds with the responsibility for the betterment of society. In critical ways, the latter, in the form of a robust research and technology-driven enterprise, has taken precedence over the former, resulting in harm to patients and individual dignity. This tradeoff can be traced to Abraham Flexner, the father of American medical education. In the wake of the Flexner report, American medicine set out on a course of exponential scientific advancement, but the mistreatment of research subjects and the erosion of the doctor-patient relationship in a health care system that is increasingly unaffordable, complex, and impersonal suggest that such progress has come at a price. Recent efforts by medical schools to emphasize humanism in their curricula and admissions processes have shown promise in orienting the values of academic medicine toward the individual patient’s well-being.     

Women in medicine: practice patterns and attitudes.

Increasing numbers of women are entering medicine in Canada. In 1959 women accounted for 6% of the medical school graduates, but by 1989 they accounted for 44%. Although there has been little systematic investigation of the impact of this increase on Canada''s health care system, there are grounds for believing that female physicians bring with them distinctive values and interests, which may be reflected in the way they conduct their professional practices. We used data from a recent national survey of 2398 Canadian physicians to examine differences between women and men in their practices and their attitudes toward health care issues. Significant differences were found in the organization and management of the practices. Women preferred group over solo practice and were overrepresented in community health centres, health service organizations and centres locaux de services communautaires in Quebec. One-third of the women, as compared with half of the men, were in specialties. Even after adjusting for differences in workloads the incomes of the women were significantly lower than those of the men. Only minor differences were observed in the assessment of the health care system and alternative modes of organizing health care services. We believe that the differences were due to the double workload of women as professionals and family caregivers and the powerful socialization effects of medical education. As women overcome their minority status in the medical profession, differences between the sexes may become more apparent. Thus, the extent and effects of the progressive increase in the number of women in Canadian medicine should be assessed on an ongoing basis.     

The Oslerian Tradition and Changing Medical Education: A Reappraisal

Although only 21 of Sir William Osler''s 45 years in academic medicine were spent in US medical schools (1884 to 1905), he played a major role in shaping modern medical education in this country. The integration of scholarship with patient care, together with the science and art of medicine, was central to Osler''s teaching and writing throughout his career. A classic generalist and a charismatic clinical teacher, he taught by example and was as concerned with the ideals of medicine as with its science and knowledge.Many changes have reshaped the content, process and concerns of American medical education since Osler''s time. Subspecialization and balkanization of medical education and practice have become dominant. Many of the important issues in medicine today do not fit neatly into the domain of any of the established specialties or medical organizations. There is now an urgent need to promote generalist attitudes in medicine, and the Oslerian tradition has much to offer in approaching today''s problems in medical education and practice.     

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH MEDICAL DISASTER CARE—Preparations in a Large Southern California Area

In the organization for dealing with medical disaster, the region is in an intermediary position, between the State Disaster Office and the operational areas. Regional functions are largely those of coordinating the activities of the areas, and are based upon directives and plans from the state level.The regional medical chief is a member of the staff of the Civil Defense coordinator and must advise him in all matters related to the health of the people, including medical and casualty care, hospitalization, public health, sanitation, preventive medicine and the special problems of biological, chemical and radiation hazards. Coordination with the other Civil Defense services is necessary.The basic medical plan is to give emergency care in the first aid stations and then evacuate casualties to hospitals when and how the situation permits. Regional function is to obtain personnel, supply, equipment and hospitalization support when required.Dispersal of danger zone populations to support areas creates many medical and public health problems among the displaced people and the residents.Survival of the nation requires altered concepts of casualty management. The least injured who have the greatest productive potential should have the highest treatment priority. Short, lifesaving surgical procedures must have precedence over long, complicated operations.No plan is any better than the individual doctors, nurses and other personnel who will put it into operation.