Remains of grasses found with the Neolithic Iceman “Ötzi”

The plant remains from the discovery site of the Iceman include a large quantity of grass, from which parts of his clothing were also made. His cape consists of bundles of Brachypodium pinnatum tied with Tilia bast fibres, and the hay used as insulating material in his shoes consists of several species, such as Avenella flexuosa, Avenula versicolor/pubescens, Festuca spec., Nardus stricta and Brachypodium pinnatum. Most probably, these grasses were collected in subalpine matt-grass communities. Additionally, the birch bark vessel found beside the body contained pieces of Molinia caerulea. Grass fragments were evenly distributed all over his equipment as well as in the ice of the gully in which the Iceman was embedded. This implies that the ice in the gully thawed at least once between 3300 and 800 b.c. and the find assemblage was floating in the melt water.     

Origin and seasonality of subfossil caprine dung from the discovery site of the Iceman (Eastern Alps)

The discovery of a Neolithic glacier mummy (dated to 3300–3100 cal b.c.) on a remote site of an Alpine pass at 3,200 m in the Ötztal Mountains is still puzzling. In the initial phase of the Iceman research, four hypotheses were suggested to explain the find in its entirety. The speculations vary from a hunter or warrior to a shaman, a miner or a shepherd. None of these proposals is accepted or corroborated by archaeological findings, but on the basis of palynological investigations conducted in the vicinity of the discovery site the assumption that the Iceman was involved in an early form of transhumance has now gained general acceptance. Concerning this assumption we present in this paper a recent study conducted on about a hundred caprine (sheep/goat or ibex/chamois) dung pellets recovered from the find spot of the Iceman and which were dated from 5400 to 2000 cal b.c. The approach was to determine through plant remains from these faeces whether they were droppings derived from animals grazing in anthropogenic habitats at low altitudes or in alpine grasslands. The former case would suggest they were livestock, the latter game. The results showed that all droppings derive from animals grazing at high altitudes.     

Six mosses from the Tyrolean Iceman’s alimentary tract and their significance for his ethnobotany and the events of his last days

Six different mosses have been recognised in samples taken from the intestinal contents of the 5,200-year-old Iceman from the Eastern Alps. Four of the species are important in understanding the lifestyle of the man and/or bear on the events during the last few days of his life: Anomodon viticulosus, Hymenostylium recurvirostrum, Neckera complanata and Sphagnum imbricatum. The past and present chorology and habitats of the Hymenostylium are discussed in detail, as is the ethnobotany of the Sphagnum concerning both the Iceman and Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchí, the first ancient glacier body from North America.     

The stone age iceman from the Alps: The find and the current status of investigation

On September 19, 1991, a body protruding from glacial ice was discovered in the Alps between Austria and Italy. Considered a forensic case, and having been found on Austrian soil according to initial information, it was transported to the Department of Forensic Medicine in Innsbruck. Rumors about the body not being recent were readily confirmed, and news about the body and accompanying equipment immediately spread all over the world. The body itself was shown to be a natural mummy, as opposed to a corpse that has been embedded in glacial ice for some time, where soft tissue generally changes into grave wax (adipocere). The mummy was male and was remarkably well preserved. The preserved condition of his equipment and some organic material was astonishingly good. Isotope dating of the body by means of the ¹⁴C method has given an age of about 3,300 BC, or Late Stone Age. A survey of the border, however, revealed that the body was found just on the Italian side (within the autonomous province South Tyrol), and not as first assumed, in Austria (the province Tyrol). But according to an agreement between South Tyrol and the University of Innsbruck, the body will be kept at the Department of Anatomy in Innsbruck for a period of at least three years for research purposes. The research is to be carried out on an international basis, and the first symposium about the find was held in Innsbruck, June 3–5, 1992.     

Nanostructure and mechanics of mummified type I collagen from the 5300-year-old Tyrolean Iceman

Skin protects the body from pathogens and degradation. Mummified skin in particular is extremely resistant to decomposition. External influences or the action of micro-organisms, however, can degrade the connective tissue and lay the subjacent tissue open. To determine the degree of tissue preservation in mummified human skin and, in particular, the reason for its durability, we investigated the structural integrity of its main protein, type I collagen. We extracted samples from the Neolithic glacier mummy known as ‘the Iceman’. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed collagen fibrils that had characteristic banding patterns of 69 ± 5 nm periodicity. Both the microstructure and the ultrastructure of dermal collagen bundles and fibrils were largely unaltered and extremely well preserved by the natural conservation process. Raman spectra of the ancient collagen indicated that there were no significant modifications in the molecular structure. However, AFM nanoindentation measurements showed slight changes in the mechanical behaviour of the fibrils. Young''s modulus of single mummified fibrils was 4.1 ± 1.1 GPa, whereas the elasticity of recent collagen averages 3.2 ± 1.0 GPa. The excellent preservation of the collagen indicates that dehydration owing to freeze-drying of the collagen is the main process in mummification and that the influence of the degradation processes can be addressed, even after 5300 years.     

Plant economy and village life in Neolithic lake dwellings at the time of the Alpine Iceman

This paper gives an overview of domesticated and wild plants used during the second half of the fourth millennium cal b.c. in a region within a semicircle of ca. 100 km radius around the find site of the Iceman. The landscape considered lies north of the main Alpine chain and includes central to eastern Switzerland and southwest Germany, mainly sites at the lakes Zug, Zürich, Constance (Bodensee), the Federsee region of Upper Swabia (Oberschwaben) and western Bavaria. From this part of central Europe, the plant remains of many well-preserved lake dwelling sites have been investigated during the last decades and much is known about daily life in these villages. Probably contemporary with the Iceman’s lifetime is one of the best-investigated settlements, Arbon Bleiche 3 on the southern shore of Lake Constance. A comparison of the Iceman’s artefacts and plant macro remains with the finds from the lake dwellings which have been studied shows striking similarities, but also differences. The Iceman’s southern provenance can be corroborated by the domestic plants found with him. He used domestic as well as wild plants, very similar to those of his contemporaries in the lakeside villages. The detailed knowledge of the manifold activities in the lakeshore village of Arbon Bleiche 3 allows us to show a rather realistic picture of daily life at the time of the Iceman.     

Vegetation, climate and palaeoaltitude reconstructions of the Eastern Alps during the Miocene based on pollen records from Austria, Central Europe

Aim To reconstruct the flora, vegetation, climate and palaeoaltitude during the Miocene (23.03–5.33 Ma) in Central Europe. Location Six outcrop sections located in different basins of the Central Paratethys in Austria. Methods Pollen analysis was used for the reconstruction of the vegetation and climate. The altitude of the Eastern Alps that are adjacent to the Alpine Foreland and Vienna basins has been estimated using a new quantification method based on pollen data. This method uses biogeographical and climatological criteria such as the composition of the modern vegetation belts in the European mountains and Miocene annual temperature estimates obtained from fossil pollen data. Results Pollen changes from Early to Late Miocene have been observed. The vegetation during the Burdigalian and Langhian (20.43–13.65 Ma) was dominated by thermophilous elements such as evergreen trees, typical of a present‐day evergreen rain forest at low altitudes (i.e. south‐eastern China). During the Serravallian and Tortonian (13.65–7.25 Ma) several thermophilous elements strongly decreased, and some disappeared from the Central European region. This kind of vegetation was progressively substituted by one enriched in deciduous and mesothermic plants. Middle‐altitude (Cathaya, Cedrus and Tsuga) and high‐altitude (Abies and Picea) conifers increased considerably during the Langhian and later on during the Serravallian and Tortonian. Main conclusions Pollen changes are related to climatic changes and to the uplift of the Alpine massifs. The vegetation during the Burdigalian and Langhian reflects the Miocene climatic optimum. The decrease in thermophilous plants during the Serravallian and Tortonian can be interpreted as a climatic cooling and can be correlated with global and regional climatic changes. This study shows that the palaeoaltitude of the eastern part of the Eastern Alps during the Burdigalian was not high enough for Abies and Picea to form a forest. Therefore, we inferred that the summits of most of the mountains would have been less than 1800 m. The substantial increase of middle‐ and high‐altitude conifers in the pollen spectra suggests that the uplift rate increased during the Langhian in this region. Based on higher palaeoaltitude estimations for the pollen floras from the studied sections of Austria, we infer that the uplift of the easternmost part of the Alpine chain continued during the Serravallian and Tortonian.     

Permian bryozoans of the NW-tethys

Summary Permian bryozoan faunas from the Lower Permian sequences of the Carnic Alps (UpperPseudoschwagerina Formation and Trogkofel Formation) and from some other Permian units of the NW-Tethys (Sicily, Tunisia) include cystoporid, trepostomid, fenestellid, rhabdomesid, and timanodictyid taxa. Fenestellids and cystoporids species dominate. The Lower Permian bryozoan fauna of the Carnic Alps displays close relations to faunas of Sakmarian-Artinskian age of the Russian Platform and Pamir as well as of the Lower Permian of Australia. Bryozoans from Permian sequences of Sicily and Tunisia display relations to the Permian faunas of Indonesia and Australia.     

The impact of trampling by tourists on a high altitudinal grassland in the Tyrolean Alps,Austria

The long term effect of tourist trampling on a high altitudinal grassland (Caricion curvulae) in the Tyrolean Alps was investigated.Even under slight trampling the frequency of sensitive species decreases. The most sensitive species were found to be fruticose lichens, followed by mosses, some forbs and broadleaved grasses. Tolerant to trampling are the dominant species Carex curvula, and Ligusticum mutellina, which do not disappear completely even at a tourist frequency of 150 tourists per metre per day. Trampling increases soil bulk density moderately but has no marked effect on the soil water content.Comparison with high alpine sedge heath vegetation in North America shows a surprising uniformity of this vegetation type in response to trampling and also indicates that the common generalisation that alpine ecosystems are fragile and sensitive to disturbance does not hold true in this context. Furthermore these results represent evidence against the theory that ecosystems with low diversity are much more sensitive to arteficial impact than ecosystems with high diversity. However, if even the most resistant plants which are the dominant sedges are destroyed completely the rate of recovery is very low and may last for a long time. In the case of Carex curvula this is supported by the fact that it has very low seed production and grows mainly vegetatively. The rate of spread of the rhizome system of this species is 8 mm in 10 years. Similar figures may apply for the sedge species dominating in the alpine vegetation of North America. Thus fragility of this vegetation in regard to trampling does not mean low tolerance but low regeneration.Nomenclature of species follows Ehrendorfer (1973) for vascular plants and Poelt (1974) for lichens.The PCA calculations were done at the Computer laboratory of the University of Wales during a post doctoral stay at the School of Plant Biology in Bangor, U.K. I would like to record my thanks to Prof. Dr. P. Greig-Smith for fruitful discussions and reading the draft.     

Population Genomic Analysis of Ancient and Modern Genomes Yields New Insights into the Genetic Ancestry of the Tyrolean Iceman and the Genetic Structure of Europe

Genome sequencing of the 5,300-year-old mummy of the Tyrolean Iceman, found in 1991 on a glacier near the border of Italy and Austria, has yielded new insights into his origin and relationship to modern European populations. A key finding of that study was an apparent recent common ancestry with individuals from Sardinia, based largely on the Y chromosome haplogroup and common autosomal SNP variation. Here, we compiled and analyzed genomic datasets from both modern and ancient Europeans, including genome sequence data from over 400 Sardinians and two ancient Thracians from Bulgaria, to investigate this result in greater detail and determine its implications for the genetic structure of Neolithic Europe. Using whole-genome sequencing data, we confirm that the Iceman is, indeed, most closely related to Sardinians. Furthermore, we show that this relationship extends to other individuals from cultural contexts associated with the spread of agriculture during the Neolithic transition, in contrast to individuals from a hunter-gatherer context. We hypothesize that this genetic affinity of ancient samples from different parts of Europe with Sardinians represents a common genetic component that was geographically widespread across Europe during the Neolithic, likely related to migrations and population expansions associated with the spread of agriculture.     

Anthropological structure and culture adaptive strategies of the Neolithic Populations in Central Europe

The present work is the outcome of both biological anthropology and prehistoric research. The theses of cultural ecology became the basis for research on biological and cultural changes of human groups. More than 80 human bones series from the Neolithic cultures of Central Europe have been used here. The role of economic processes (ie: the additional role of cultural system) within the general picture of a given system has been stressed here. As far as anthropological analysis is concerned, the estimation of biological population state and dynamics and the morphological characteristics including the skull morphology, have been used in the present work. In order to observe the mutual interrelations 2 developmental systems for 2 cultural units, the Linear Pottery Culture and the Corded Ware Culture have been constructed. As we think there 2 systems present 2 different adaptational strategies in the Neolithic in Central Europe. The adaptational strategy is understood as socially generated concept of the creation of man-and-environment relation.     

The schulterkofel section in the Carnic Alps,Austria: Implications for the carboniferous-permian boundary

Summary The upper part of the LowerPseudoschwagerina Limestone (Rattendorf Group), outcropping on the northwestern flank of Schulterkofel Mountain, Carnic Alps (Austria) is described with special emphasis on fusulinid microfossils and facies. This fusulinid-rich section offers an ideal opportunity for biostratigraphy in defining the Permo-Carboniferous boundary in this region. The LowerPseudoschwagerina Limestone is composed of shallow-marine limestones with intercalated thin siltstone and sandstone beds. Fusulinid limestones are represented by two types of wackestones, both containing large quantities of smaller foraminifers. Fusulinid grainstones are rare. Limestones rich in fusulinids were found only within the bedded limestone facies in beds both below and especially above siliciclastic intercalations. This may indicate that the best living conditions for fusulinids existed immediately before and especially after the climax of a regressive phase (sea-level lowstand). The fusulinid limestones were deposited within a protected, shallow-marine shelf environment with normal salinity. Pseudoschwagerinid fusulinids appear in the upper part of the LowerPseudoschwagerina Limestone, in samples SK 107d (undeterminable species) and SK 108, i.e. between 92 m and 93 m above the base of the section within a bedded limestone immediately above the uppermost clastic intercalation. The fusulinid fauna is represented by about 30 species belonging to only a few genera. Species ofTriticites andRugosofusulina dominate, whereas those ofDaixina, Rugosochusenella andPseudofusulina are rare. A characteristic feature of the fauna is the strong similarity with fusulinid faunas described from Russia as well as from Middle and East Asia. Some of the described fusulinids are new for the Carnic Alps. The first appearance ofPseudoschwagerina andOccidentoschwagerina (Occidentoschwagerina alpina Zone) in the upper part of the LowerPseudoschwagerina Limestone in the Schulterkofel section defines the position of the Carboniferous-Permian boundary.     

The larva of Rhyacophila ferox Graf, 2006 (Trichoptera: Rhyacophilidae) from the Eastern Alps (Carinthia,Austria)

The hitherto unknown larva of Rhyacophila ferox Graf, 2006, is described and discussed in the context of contemporary Rhyacophilidae keys. In addition, zoogeographical and ecological notes are included.     

Testing different Earlywood/Latewood delimitations for the establishment of Blue Intensity data: A case study based on Alpine Picea abies samples

For dendroclimatological Blue Intensity (BI) studies based on earlywood (EW) or latewood (LW) information, a demarcation between the two is necessary, which can be difficult to establish for species where the transition is subtle. Often, a percental value k is used that calculates an EW/LW boundary value for each tree ring individually based on the difference between maximum and minimum absorption. Several laboratories and authors have used different values for k (e.g. k = 30 % or k = 50 %), while wood anatomical and visual studies suggest that k is on the order of 80 %. Here, we test how different settings of k, and thus different definitions of the EW and LW proportions of a tree ring, influence the dendroclimatic potential of derived time series. To this end, we correlate instrumental temperature measurements with tree ring chronologies that are based on EW and LW information (e.g. EW absorption (EWBI), LW absorption (LWBI)), where the EW/LW proportion is varied by setting different values for k. The tree ring samples utilized are 30 cores of spruce (Picea abies) trees from a high-elevated site (ca. 1700 m a.s.l.) in the northern Alps, Austria. Overall, we achieve high correlations between temperature data and our tree ring chronologies. Regarding the stability of the climate signal under different k values, the results show that absorption intensity based parameters (ΔBI, EWBI, LWBI) are only mildly influenced by different settings of k, while width based parameters (EW width, LW width) show a larger dependence on k. LW width, for instance, was stronger correlated with temperature, the smaller the LW was chosen (and thus the higher k was set). Based on our results and the wood anatomical definition of the EW/LW boundary, we suggest that k = 80 % may be a good choice for future studies. However, since this is only a case study from one site, careful screening of the respective data set regarding an appropriate k value must accompany each dendroclimatological study.     

The Neolithic Demographic Transition in the Central Balkans: population dynamics reconstruction based on new radiocarbon evidence

In this paper, we test the hypothesis of the Neolithic Demographic Transition in the Central Balkan Early Neolithic (6250–5300 BC) by applying the method of summed calibrated probability distributions to the set of more than 200 new radiocarbon dates from Serbia. The results suggest that there was an increase in population size after the first farmers arrived to the study area around 6250 BC. This increase lasted for approximately 250 years and was followed by a decrease in the population size proxy after 6000 BC, reaching its minimum around 5800 BC. This was followed by another episode of growth until 5600 BC when population size proxy rapidly declined, reaching the minimum again around 5500 BC. The reconstructed intrinsic growth rate value indicates that the first episode of growth might have been fuelled both by high fertility and migrations, potentially related to the effects of the 8.2 ky event. The second episode of population growth after 5800 BC was probably owing to the high fertility alone. It remains unclear what caused the episodes of population decrease.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Cross-disciplinary approaches to prehistoric demography''.     

Fresh investigations into the natural and anthropogenically influenced vegetation of the earlier Holocene in the Elbe-Saale Region,Central Germany

At present the central part of the Elbe-Saale area is characterized by subcontinental climatic conditions. Palynological investigations at Zöschen show that, even in pre-Neolithic times, the composition of the primeval forest in this part of Germany had its own distinctive features. On the basis of the palynological results, the existence of natural steppe Holocene is improbable, the region being covered by forests since ca. 9 500 B.P., i.e. the Preboreal. The appearance of anthropochores or culture dependent plants and the beginning of flood loam sedimentation as a result of soil erosion indicate human impact from ca. 6 000 B.P., i.e. the end of the older Atlantic. At Eilsleben changes of tree and shrub frequencies are combined with the occurrence of anthropogenic indicator herb species. These palynological features suggest agricultural expansion phases that are interrupted by regression phases in the early and middle Neolithic (ca. 6 500-2 500 B.P.).     

Demic and cultural diffusion in prehistoric Europe in the age of ancient genomes

Ancient genomes can help us detect prehistoric migrations, population contractions, and admixture among populations. Knowing the dynamics of demography is invaluable for understanding culture change in prehistory, particularly the roles played by demic and cultural diffusion in transformations of material cultures. Prehistoric Europe is a region where ancient genome analyses can help illuminate the interplay between demography and culture change. In Europe, there is more archeological evidence, in terms of detailed studies, radiometric dates, and explanatory hypotheses that can be evaluated, than in any other region of the world. Here I show some important ways that ancient genomes have given us insights into population movements in European prehistory. I also propose that studies might be increasingly focused on specific questions of culture change, for example in evaluating the makers of “transitional” industries as well as the origins of the Gravettian and spread of the Magdalenian. I also discuss genomic evidence supporting the large role that demic expansion has played in the Neolithization of Europe and the formation of the European population during the Bronze Age.     

Downward-Shifting Temperature Range for the Growth of Snow-Bacteria on Glaciers of the Tibetan Plateau

Fifty-seven snow-bacteria strains were isolated from the snow of the Zadang and Mengdagangri Glaciers located in the central and southern part of the Tibetan Plateau, respectively. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis showed that strains isolated from the Zadang Glacier belonged to the Alphaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, and were dominated by the Firmicutes. Strains from the Mengdagangri Glacier belonged to the Actinobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria, and were dominated by the Actinobacteria. Sixty-one percent of the isolates were colored with pigment. Sixty-nine percent of isolates from the Zadang Glacier were psychrotolerants, and there were no psychrophiles. We compared the growth-temperature range of 26 snow-bacteria strains to their closest mesophilic type strains and found that 46% of them had an optimum growth-temperature at or lower than 20°C, and 65% were all able to grow at 0°C. However, only 5.3% of mesophilic strains had optimum growth-temperatures at or lower than 20°C, and 9% could grow at 0°C. Snow-bacteria shift their growth-temperature downward; and doing this, in terms of the minimum and optimum temperatures for growth, might be an important strategy for them to adapt to low temperature after they have been deposited on the glacier. Our results suggested that, in order to adapt from mesophilic environments to a cold habitat, snow-bacteria widen their temperature range for growth, convert from mesophiles to psychrotolerants, but not to psychrophiles. In addition, eight isolates formed pigmented colonies, while their mesophilic counterparts were achromogenic. This helped us to confirm through comparative analysis that pigmented microorganisms were more abundant in high-altitude glaciers than in mesophilic environments.