Calculations of dietary exposure to acrylamide

In this paper we calculated the usual and acute exposure to acrylamide (AA) in the Dutch population and young children (1-6 years). For this AA levels of different food groups were used as collected by the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) of the European Commission's Directorate General Joint Research Centre (JRC) from April 2003 up to May 2004. This database contained about 3500 AA levels received from mainly Germany, The Netherlands, Ireland, Greece, Austria, UK and from food industry. Food consumption levels used were derived from the Dutch National Food Consumption Survey of 1997/1998 (n=6250 of which 530 children aged 1-6 years). The exposure was estimated using the probabilistic approach. The results of the exposure calculations are discussed in relation to different methodological aspects of AA exposure calculations and possible uncertainties related to this. The items discussed include quality of the AA levels measured in food items, the allocation of AA levels to food categories, the quality of food consumption levels, and relevant exposure model in relation to reported toxicity of AA. Furthermore, we demonstrate that scenario studies and probabilistic modelling of exposure are potential useful tools to evaluate the effect of processing techniques to reduce AA levels in food on AA exposure. The scenarios studied reduced total AA exposure ranging from <1% up to 17%.     

Differences in hemoglobin adduct levels of acrylamide in the general population with respect to dietary intake, smoking habits and gender

The variation in dietary exposure to acrylamide (AA) has been studied through measurement of hemoglobin adduct levels from AA, as a measurement of internal dose, in a sample from the blood bank of the Malmö Diet and Cancer Cohort (n = 28,098). The blood donors are well characterised with regard to their food habits, and 142 individuals were selected to obtain highest possible variation in the adduct levels from AA (none, random or high intake of coffee, fried potato, crisp bread and snacks, food items estimated to have high levels of AA).Among 70 non-smokers the AA-adduct levels varied by a factor of 5, and ranged between 0.02 and 0.1 nmol/g, with considerable overlap in AA-adduct levels between the different dietary groups. There was a significant difference between men with high dietary exposure to AA compared to men with low dietary exposure (P = 0.04). No such difference was found for women. As expected a higher level (range: 0.03–0.43 nmol/g) of the AA-adduct, due to AA in tobacco smoke, was found in smokers. Smoking women with high dietary exposure to AA had significantly higher AA-adduct levels compared to smoking women with low dietary exposure (P = 0.01). No such significant difference was found in smoking men. The median hemoglobin (Hb) adduct level in the randomly selected group of non-smokers was compatible with earlier studies (0.031 nmol/g).The variation in the average internal dose, measured as Hb adducts, was somewhat smaller than estimated for daily intake by food consumption questionnaires in other studies. Thus, the observed relatively narrow inter-individual variation in AA-adduct levels means that estimates of individual dietary AA intake have to be very precise if they should be useful in future cancer epidemiology.     

Dietary intake of nickel and zinc by young children – Results from food duplicate portion measurements in comparison to data calculated from dietary records and available data on levels in food groups

The daily dietary intake of nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn) by 42 young children, 21 boys and 21 girls, from 4 to 7 years of age, living in urban and rural areas of Germany and having different food consumption behaviour, was determined by the duplicate method with a 7-day sampling period. Dietary records were also kept by the children's parents for the 7-day sampling period. Individual reported food items were identified, assigned to food groups and, together with known Ni and Zn concentrations of foodstuffs, daily intake rates were calculated. The same method was used for calculations of the energy, fat, protein and carbohydrate intake rates.The levels in the food duplicates, determined by atomic absorption spectrometry, were in the range of 69–2000 μg Ni/kg_{dry weight} (geometric mean (GM): 348) and 7.1–43 mg Zn/kg_{dry weight} (GM: 17.5). Daily intake rates based on the 294 individual food duplicate analyses were 12–560 μg Ni/d (GM: 92.3) and 1.5–11 mg Zn/d (GM: 4.63). The results from the dietary records were 35–1050 μg Ni/d (GM: 123) and 1.7–15 mg Zn/d (GM: 5.35).The results of the daily intake rates from both methods showed a correlation with regard to Zn (r=0.56), but no correlation was found between either the Ni intake rates determined with both methods or between the Ni intake rates measured by the duplicate method and calculated intake rates from the dietary records of energy, fat, protein, carbohydrates or drinking water. In the case of nickel, the discrepancies between the methods lead one to suppose that the main factors influencing Ni intake by food are not directly caused by easily assessable food ingredients themselves. It is possible that other factors, such as contaminated drinking water or the transition of Ni from kettles or other household utensils made from stainless steel into the food, may be more relevant. In addition there are some foodstuffs with great variations in concentrations, often influenced by the growing area and environmental factors. Further, some food groups naturally high in Nickel like nuts, cocoa or teas might not have been kept sufficient within the records. In summary, the dietary record method gave sufficient results for Zn, but is insufficient for Ni.Based on the food duplicate analysis, children living in urban areas with consumption of food products from a family-owned garden or the surrounding area and/or products from domestic animals of the surrounding area had about one-third higher Ni levels in their food than children either living in an urban area or children consuming products exclusively from the supermarket. Only slight differences were found with regard to Zn.Compared to the recommendations of the German Society of Nutrition (DGE) (25–30 μg Ni/d and 5.0 mg Zn/d), the participants of the study had a clearly increased Ni and, in view of the geometric mean value, a nearly adequate Zn intake. Health risks are especially given with regard to the influence of nickel intake by food on dermatitis for nickel-sensitive individuals.     

Feeding of Burbot, Lota lota, at Different Temperatures

Daily food intake of adult burbot, Lota lota, fed on vendace, Coregonus albula, were estimated experimentally at four different water temperatures (2.4, 5.1, 10.8 and 23.4°C). Mean daily food intake (MDI; g d^–1) and relative daily food intake (RDI; g g^–1 d^–1) increased with temperature from 2.4 to 10.8°C and decreased at 23.4°C. Temperatures of maximum daily food intake values were 13.6°C for MDI and 14.4°C for RDI. No correlation between food intake values and burbot weight was observed. RDI values were used to estimate annual food consumption of burbot population. Annual food consumption estimates were 9.7kg ha^–1 and 24.3kg ha^–1 when burbot biomass was 2.0 or 5.0kg ha^–1, respectively.     

Experimental estimation of the food intake of larval vendace (Coregonus albula L.) under field conditions

We estimated the food intake of larval vendace (Coregonus albula L.) directly in an experimental chamber under field conditions. The larvae were stocked into net enclosures and reared without additional feeding for 6 weeks immediately after the ice melted in Lake Ylä-Enonvesi, Eastern Finland. The food intake was estimated on the basis of the decrease in zooplankters due to larval predation in the transparent plastic chambers anchored in the littoral zone. The experiments were carried out twice in 1988 and three times in 1989 (May–June). The numbers of zooplankters inside the chambers were counted from the subsamples using an inverted microscope. The relative daily ingestion rate (mg dry mass of prey animals mg dry mass of fish ^–1 24 h^–1) of the larvae of different sizes was: 1.09 and 0.84 for 9–11 mm larvae, 1.27 for 11–13 mm larvae and 0.34 for 17–20 mm larvae. The measured ingestion rate is presumed to be near the maximum consumption of the larvae. This method could provide accurate estimates of food consumption in the field or in the laboratory.     

Feeding habits of larval Mirogrex terraesanctae (Steinitz, 1952) in Lake Kinneret (Israel) II. Experimental study

Interactions between the larvae of Mirogrex terraesanctae (Steinitz, 1952) in Lake Kinneret, Israel, and their zooplankton prey were studied experimentally. Prey species preference and size selectivities were measured. Larvae were hatched in the lab from eggs collected in the field, and fed different food items in various concentrations. The food items included lake zooplankton, algae, and commercial pellets. It was shown that small, first feeding larvae (7–8.5 mm SL) prefer small bodied zooplankters (< 180 µ). The effect of these food sources on larval growth was measured. It was found that larval Mirogrex grew at a higher rate when fed zooplankton prey sized from 63 µ–250 µ. Food items smaller than 63 µ, larger than 250 µ and Scenedesmus sp., produced less than optimal growth rates. The importance of Mirogrex feeding habits and their potential influence on the Kinneret ecosystem is considered.     

Differences in hemoglobin adduct levels of acrylamide in the general population with respect to dietary intake, smoking habits and gender

The variation in dietary exposure to acrylamide (AA) has been studied through measurement of hemoglobin adduct levels from AA, as a measurement of internal dose, in a sample from the blood bank of the Malm? Diet and Cancer Cohort (n=28,098). The blood donors are well characterised with regard to their food habits, and 142 individuals were selected to obtain highest possible variation in the adduct levels from AA (none, random or high intake of coffee, fried potato, crisp bread and snacks, food items estimated to have high levels of AA). Among 70 non-smokers the AA-adduct levels varied by a factor of 5, and ranged between 0.02 and 0.1 nmol/g, with considerable overlap in AA-adduct levels between the different dietary groups. There was a significant difference between men with high dietary exposure to AA compared to men with low dietary exposure (P=0.04). No such difference was found for women. As expected a higher level (range: 0.03-0.43 nmol/g) of the AA-adduct, due to AA in tobacco smoke, was found in smokers. Smoking women with high dietary exposure to AA had significantly higher AA-adduct levels compared to smoking women with low dietary exposure (P=0.01). No such significant difference was found in smoking men. The median hemoglobin (Hb) adduct level in the randomly selected group of non-smokers was compatible with earlier studies (0.031 nmol/g). The variation in the average internal dose, measured as Hb adducts, was somewhat smaller than estimated for daily intake by food consumption questionnaires in other studies. Thus, the observed relatively narrow inter-individual variation in AA-adduct levels means that estimates of individual dietary AA intake have to be very precise if they should be useful in future cancer epidemiology.     

Exposure to food advertising on television: Associations with children's fast food and soft drink consumption and obesity

There is insufficient research on the direct effects of food advertising on children's diet and diet-related health, particularly in non-experimental settings. We employ a nationally-representative sample from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey–Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) and the Nielsen Company data on spot television advertising of cereals, fast food restaurants and soft drinks to children across the top 55 designated-market areas to estimate the relation between exposure to food advertising on television and children's food consumption and body weight. Our results suggest that soft drink and fast food television advertising is associated with increased consumption of soft drinks and fast food among elementary school children (Grade 5). Exposure to 100 incremental TV ads for sugar-sweetened carbonated soft drinks during 2002–2004 was associated with a 9.4% rise in children's consumption of soft drinks in 2004. The same increase in exposure to fast food advertising was associated with a 1.1% rise in children's consumption of fast food. There was no detectable link between advertising exposure and average body weight, but fast food advertising was significantly associated with body mass index for overweight and obese children (≥85th BMI percentile), revealing detectable effects for a vulnerable group of children. Exposure to advertising for calorie-dense nutrient-poor foods may increase overall consumption of unhealthy food categories.     

Organic contaminant exposure in the Lake St. Clair food web

Chemical concentrations and distributions in an aquatic food web were studied to quantify the relative importance of chemical properties versus food web processes in determining exposure dynamics of organic contaminants in aquatic ecosystems. Five organochlorines were measured (Pentachlorobenzene QCB, Hexachlorobenzene HCB, Octachlorostyrene OCS, Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene DDE and Polychlorinated Biphenyls PCBs) in the food web of Lake St. Clair. Levels of QCB in aquatic organisms ranged from 1.0 to 25 µg kg^–1 lipid, and levels of HCB ranged from 10 to 410 µg kg^–1 lipid. More elevated concentrations of OCS (13 to 392 µg kg^–1 lipid), DDE (162 to 11 986 µg kg^–1 lipid) and PCB (650 to 64 900 µg kg^–1 lipid) were observed. Organism — water equilibrium ratios were calculated for all species sampled to quantify the importance of food web processes in regulating contaminant exposure dynamics. Correlations of organism — water equilibrium ratios with body size were not significant for QCB, HCB and OCS (P>0.1), but were found to be significant for DDE and PCB (P<0.01).Results support the conclusion that both chemical properties and food web dynamics regulate the distribution and concentration of organochlorines in aquatic ecosystems. Food web processes are important, however, for chemicals, that are not metabolized and have octanol — water partition coefficients (log K _ow) greater than 5.5.     

The impact of temperature on activity and consumption rate of moth eggs by Blattisocius tarsalis (Acari: Ascidae)

The activity of adult female Blattisocius tarsalis was investigated at temperatures of 7–13°C. At 7°C only 33% of the mites walked and these individuals all walked less than 1.5 cm min–1. All mites walked at 9°C and at 12°C all were highly active, walking more than 1.5 cm min–1. Daily food consumption rates of adult female B. tarsalis offered young eggs of Ephestia kuehniella as food were investigated at temperatures of 9–27°C. Food consumption below 13°C was very low. At temperatures of 13–19°C the mean number of fully ingested eggs had a level of between 0.5 and 1.0 egg in 24 h. At temperatures of 21–27°C the mean number of fully ingested eggs was above 1.0 egg in 24 h. The mean number of destroyed eggs per female at temperatures above 13°C ranged from three to five eggs per day. © Rapid Science Ltd. 1998     

Food Insecurity and Children’s Mental Health: A Prospective Birth Cohort Study

Food insecurity (which can be defined as inadequate access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets individuals’ dietary needs) is concurrently associated with children’s psychological difficulties. However, the predictive role of food insecurity with regard to specific types of children’s mental health symptoms has not previously been studied. We used data from the Longitudinal Study of Child Development in Québec, LSCDQ, a representative birth cohort study of children born in the Québec region, in Canada, in 1997–1998 (n = 2120). Family food insecurity was ascertained when children were 1½ and 4½ years old. Children’s mental health symptoms were assessed longitudinally using validated measures of behaviour at ages 4½, 5, 6 and 8 years. Symptom trajectory groups were estimated to identify children with persistently high levels of depression/anxiety (21.0%), aggression (26.2%), and hyperactivity/inattention (6.0%). The prevalence of food insecurity in the study was 5.9%. In sex-adjusted analyses, children from food-insecure families were disproportionately likely to experience persistent symptoms of depression/anxiety (OR: 1.79, 95% CI 1.15–2.79) and hyperactivity/inattention (OR: 3.06, 95% CI 1.68–5.55). After controlling for immigrant status, family structure, maternal age at child’s birth, family income, maternal and paternal education, prenatal tobacco exposure, maternal and paternal depression and negative parenting, only persistent hyperactivity/inattention remained associated with food insecurity (fully adjusted OR: 2.65, 95% CI 1.16–6.06). Family food insecurity predicts high levels of children’s mental health symptoms, particularly hyperactivity/inattention. Addressing food insecurity and associated problems in families could help reduce the burden of mental health problems in children and reduce social inequalities in development.     

A laboratory study of feeding and assimilation in Euchlanis dilatata lucksiana

Feeding of Euchlanis dilatata lucksiana, a brachionid rotifer isolated from the Loosdrecht Lakes (The Netherlands), was examined in the laboratory using ¹⁴C-labelled food. The gut-filling time at a food concentration of 9.6 µg C ml^–1 was about 15 minutes. Animals which were fed on 3 size fractions of the lake seston (< 7 µm, 7–15 µm, and 15–33 µm) showed a clear preference (Jacobs' selectivity index) for the largest size fraction. This fraction was composed predominantly of filamentous cyanobacteria. For animals weighing 0.37–0.49 µm C ind.^–1 the daily ration (daily food consumption per unit body weight × 100) ranged from 50 to 100% at food levels of 2 mg C l^–1 and below, but increased to 150–250% at food concentrations of 5 mg C l^–1 and above. The assimilation efficiency was 100% up to 5 mg C l^–1 of food, but decreased to about 80% at higher food levels.     

Brain glucose and insulin: effects on food intake and brain biogenic amines of rainbow trout

The effects of central (intracerebroventricular, 9 g fish^–1) and peripheral (intraperitoneal, 4 mg kg^–1) administration of bovine insulin, as well as the effect of hyperglycemia (oral administration of 1 g glucose fish^–1) and brain glucodeprivation (intracerebroventricular administration of 2-deoxy-D-glucose) on food intake and levels of brain (telencephalon, preoptic area, and hypothalamus) biogenic amines (serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline and their metabolites 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and dihydroxyphenylacetic acid) were assessed on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Treatment with insulin inhibited food intake after 26 or 52 h of administration, central or peripheral, respectively. This effect was still apparent after 74 h of central treatment. When assessing changes in the levels of biogenic amines after 26 h of central insulin administration, there was a significant increase in the levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and in the ratio of dihydroxyphenylacetic acid/dopamine of insulin-treated fish, in telencephalon and hypothalamus, respectively. These results suggest that peripherally administered insulin is involved in a feedback regulatory loop with food intake and body weight. Moreover, at least part of the effects of insulin could be mediated by hypothalamic dopaminergic activity. The strong hyperglycemia induced by oral administration of glucose did not induce significant changes either on food intake (control versus treated), or in brain levels of biogenic amines. The intracerebroventricular administration of 2-deoxy-D-glucose induced an increase in food intake without altering plasma glucose levels, suggesting that fish brain possesses a control system for detecting hypoglycemia in plasma and therefore keep brain glucose levels high enough for brain function.Abbreviations 2-DG 2 Deoxy-D-glucose - 5-HIAA 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid - 5-HT 5-Hydroxytryptamine or serotonin - DA Dopamine - DOPAC Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid - EDTA Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid - FI Food intake - HPLC High pressure liquid chromatography - icv Intracerebroventricular - i.p. Intraperitoneal - MS 222 3-Aminobenzoic acid ethyl esther methanesulfonate salt - NA Noradrenaline     

Growth rates and energy demands in captive juvenile arctic foxes Alopex lagopus in Svalbard

Four arctic fox Alopex lagopus pups (two males and two females) were caught at dens when about 25–53 days old and kept in outdoor pens at NyÅlesund, Svalbard. Their growth in body size (as measured by the length of a front foot), increase in weight, and food consumption were monitored from July to December, 1987. The pups grew rapidly and reached 97.5 ± 0.1% of their maximum adult size when they were 99–127 days old. Increase in body weight took longer (130 days). Food consumption generally increased until about 90 days old, after which it was highly variable. Pups consumed on average 266 kcal kg^–1 day^–1 growing 34g/day until 95 days old. Subsequently, until about 200 days old, they consumed 202 kcal kg^–1 day^–1 and grew 6.8 g/day.     

Rate of food evacuation in roach (Rutilus rutilus) in relation to temperature, and the application of evacuation rate estimates for studies on the rate of food consumption

SUMMARY. Food evacuation in roach (total body length, range 75–150 mm) was studied at temperatures between 4.2 and 24.0 °C. The rate of food evacuation was described by an exponential function and was similar for two different food items ( Daphnia and Chaoborus ). The relation between the instantaneous rate of food evacuation ( R ) and temperature was also described by an exponential function. A model developed for estimating food consumption rates in fish was tested in a simulation experiment and there was good agreement between estimated and actual values for food consumption.     

Exploitation of food resources by the cockroach Blattella germanica in an urban habitat

The exploitation of food resources by the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae) was investigated experimentally in relation to distance from shelters and depletion of neighbouring food patches. In addition, the dynamics of exploitation of a patch were analysed. Observations were made after dark in a public swimming baths building and each one lasted 3 h. Food patches were placed in rows, at different distances from the shelters. The number of cockroaches in food dishes, in a 20 cm diameter circle round each food dish and in a 60 cm diameter circle round this first circle were recorded.Food items nearest the shelters were exploited first. Exploitation of row 2 and of row 3 food items started later, after row 1 food patches had been depleted. Under these conditions, the moment a food patch was exploited was related to its distance from shelter. Exploitation of food patches occurred in a step-by-step manner, one patch attracting animals when a nearby patch had been depleted, and not following a model of ideal free distribution.Although our experimental food patches were exploited in relation to their distance from shelter, we were able to demonstrate that distance did not influence the dynamics of exploitation of a food item. The mean number of cockroaches on a food patch, whatever its spatial position, increased regularly, reached a maximum at t=–10 min, and then decreased rapidly after all the food had been completely consumed, at t=0 min. The mean number of animals in the 20 cm diameter circle round a food source peaked at t=0 min, then decreased rapidly. This area appeared to be a transit area. The mean number of animals in a 60 cm diameter circle round the food source peaked later, and then decreased slowly. Animals remained in this area longer than in the area closer to the food dish, but their presence there was concomitant with the depletion of the food box.     

Food consumption of yellowfin tuna,Thunnus albacares, in Sri Lankan waters

Synopsis A total of 4181 stomachs of yellowfin tuna,Thunnus albacares (22–164 cm FL), mainly caught by gillnets in the period from July 1984 to June 1986 were analyzed. Food consumption of yellowfin tuna in nature was determined using the values of the average stomach content, incorporating laboratory measurements of gastric evacuation rates in a feeding model. The diet of yellowfin tuna around Sri Lanka comprised a variety of macro zooplanktonic and nektonic organisms. Juveniles < 39 cm FL, are planktivores. Tuna > 40 cm FL gradually increase their consumption of fishes with increasing size. Among fish speciesAuxis sp. are the most important. The daily food consumption of juvenile yellowfin tuna (22–59 cm FL) range from 1.8 g to 136.2 g, increasing to about 284.7 g to 551.9 g for the medium size tuna (60–99 cm FL). The adult tuna (100–>130 em FL) consume around 513 g to 538.8 g of prey per day. Daily ration estimates increase from 2.1% to 5.5% of body weight with increasing size up to 70 cm FL, beyond which it decreases. The predatory pressure of yellowfin tuna on commercially important fishes and other species is discussed.     

The Progressive Increase of Food Waste in America and Its Environmental Impact

Food waste contributes to excess consumption of freshwater and fossil fuels which, along with methane and CO₂ emissions from decomposing food, impacts global climate change. Here, we calculate the energy content of nationwide food waste from the difference between the US food supply and the food consumed by the population. The latter was estimated using a validated mathematical model of metabolism relating body weight to the amount of food eaten. We found that US per capita food waste has progressively increased by ∼50% since 1974 reaching more than 1400 kcal per person per day or 150 trillion kcal per year. Food waste now accounts for more than one quarter of the total freshwater consumption and ∼300 million barrels of oil per year.     

Diet composition and food consumption of the grey heron (Ardea cinerea) from breeding colonies in northern Poland

The diet of the grey heron (Ardea cinerea) was investigated in three colonies in northern Poland (Mosty, Kiersity and Kty Rybackie) varying in size, habitat type and composition of feeding areas used by birds. The diet was assessed during the breeding season on the base of pellets and regurgitated food. Pellets from all studied colonies consisted mainly of mammal hair (almost 100% of samples), bone remains (20–24%) and invertebrate remains (26–51%, mainly water beetle, Dytiscus marginalis). Bones and hair of water vole (Arvicola terrestris) and Microtus voles were the most common remains of mammals recorded in pellets. Remains of other animal taxa were found sporadically. In the colonies at Mosty and Kiersity, fish composed more than 95% of collected regurgitated prey items. Food consumption of herons from the biggest colony at Kty Rybackie was estimated to exceed 100 t per season. Herons from Mosty consumed ca 46–52 t, from Kiersity 30–38 t of food per season. The impact of herons on fish communities was much lower than other losses due to predation (herons from Kty Rybackie caught only 6% of fishermen bycatch, birds from Mosty took 10–14% of round gobies eaten by cormorants).     

From Energy to Environmental Analysis

Unsustainable private consumption causes energy and environmental problems. This occurs directly (resource depletion and emissions through using cars for transport) or indirectly (purchase of consumer goods and services for which the production uses energy and emits damaging gases). A hybrid energy analysis proved that indoor energy consumption, mobility, and vacations are the main consumer categories from an energy point of view. Although energy is often used as a proxy for environmental load from private consumption, there are other proxies like methane (CH₄), sulfur oxides (SO_x), and land use. This article describes the results of the extension of the hybrid energy analysis with energy and ten environmental stressors (CH₄, nitrous oxide [N₂O], nitrogen, phosphate, SO_x, nitrogen oxides [NO_x], ammonia [NH₃], nonmethane volatile organic compounds [NMVOCs], particulate matter [PM10], and land use), combined in five impact categories (global warming potential [GWP], acidification, eutrophication, summer smog, and land use). Household consumption was analyzed by dividing Dutch household expenditure into 368 consumer items in 11 categories. The results show that food impacts, in particular, are underestimated when only energy is taken into account. Food makes the highest contribution in three out of five impact categories when all ten stressors are taken into account. Within the food domain, meat and dairy consumer items have the highest environmental impact, about 45% of total food impact on average across all five impact categories. Looking in detail (368 consumer items), there are nine food items in the top ten most‐polluting items. Salad oil and cheese are the most polluting food items.