Capture techniques and morphometrics for the woolly spider monkey,or muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides,E. Geoffroy 1806)

A total of 12 free-ranging muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides) were captured with Telazol® at Fazenda Esmeralda, Minas Gerais, Brazil, and at Fazenda Barreiro Rico, São Paulo, Brazil. All animals were measured, marked, weighed, and released. Previously reported data suggested that Brachyteles is a sexually dimorphic species with female-male body weights of 12–15 kg, respectively. We found no statistically significant difference in body weight between females (mean = 8.4 kg, range = 6.9–9.3 kg, n = 4), and males (mean =9.6 kg, range = 9.3–10.2 kg, n = 4). Our results are at variance with previously published body weights in the literature. Larger sample size may reveal a significant sexual difference, particularly in body weight. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Insights into ovarian function in wild muriqui monkeys (Brachyteles arachnoides)

Fecal samples were collected systematically during a 6-week period, from 13 September-24 October, 1990, from four nonlactating female muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides) inhabiting an 800 ha forest at Fazenda Montes Claros in Minas Gerais, Brazil. All four females were experienced mothers; one had most recently given birth in June 1988; the other three had most recently given birth in August 1988. Fecal assays measuring progesterone, estradiol, and estrone indicated consistently low levels in the one female who had given birth in June 1988 and in two of the three females who had given birth in August 1988. Elevated steroid levels did, however, appear in fecal samples from the fourth female on day 15 of the collection period. Steroid levels subsequently dropped and then began to rise again during what appeared to be a second cycle. The cycling female was the only one of the four females examined observed to copulate during the collection period. These preliminary data indicate that nonlactating female muriquis do not cycle year-round, resumption of cycling is not tightly synchronized among females even when their prior parturitions were tightly synchronized, and resumed sexual activity appears to be associated with resumed cycling. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Ranging behavior of woolly spider monkeys,or muriquis,Brachyteles arachnoides

During a 14-month study of one group of woolly spider monkeys, or muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides),at Fazenda Montes Claros, M. G., Brazil, the group used a home range of 168 ha. Day-range lengths averaged 1283 m and were longer in the wet season than in the dry season. An analysis of travel rates indicated that the group traveled faster on those days when they traveled farther. The availability of large patches of preferred food sources appears to affect daily movement patterns. Intraspecific comparisons, in addition to an apparent expansion of the study group’s home range as their group size has increased, suggest the importance of group size to muriqui range size. Interspecific comparisons between muriquis and sympatric brown howler monkeys suggest that locomotor adaptations are important to understanding species differences in ranging behavior.     

Sexual dimorphism in canine length of woolly spider monkeys (Brachyteles arachnoides,E. Geoffroy 1806)

We measured canine teeth from 28 woolly spider monkeys (Brachyteles arachnoides) to assess sexual dimorphism and population differences. The specimens are from the Brazilian states of Bahia, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. We found strong sexual dimorphism in canine length for individuals belonging to populations south of 22°00 latitude but no sexual dimorphism in canine length from individuals of populations north of 21°00 latitude. Canine length did not vary among females of northern and southern populations. However, southern males had significantly longer canines than northern males. This geographical difference in canine morphology, together with the presence or absence of thumbs and published accounts of differences in genetics and social structure between northern and southern populations, suggests thatBrachyteles arachnoides may be composed of at least two subspecies, which appear to be separated by the rivers Grande and Paraiba do Sul and the Serra da Mantiqueira.     

Activity budgets of woolly spider monkeys,or muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides)

One group of woolly spider monkeys, or muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides), was observed from June 1983 through July 1984 at Fazenda Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The study subjects spent an average of 49% of their daylight time resting, 29% traveling, and 19% feeding. They shifted their diurnal schedule of activities in response to seasonal changes in temperature and rainfall. The activity budgets of adult males and females were similar. However, a comparison of three adult females in different reproductive conditions revealed that the lactating female spent a greater proportion of time feeding than did both the pregnant and nonreproductive females. Intraspecific differences in group size and diet appear to be important to understanding differences in the activity budgets of Brachyteles. Differences between locomotion patterns of woolly spider monkeys and sympatric howler monkeys may explain activity budget differences based on group size and diet.     

Behavioral Correlates of Dispersal in Female Muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides)

We documented four adolescent female transfers—two emigrations, two immigrations—during a 12-month study from August 1994 to July 1995 on one group of muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides) at Estação Biológica de Caratinga in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Intergroup transfers occurred throughout the year independent of season. A total of 613 focal samples of 10-min duration conducted on six adolescent females (5–9 years of age) revealed significant differences in the behavior of migrant versus natal resident females. During the seasons encompassing their respective group transfers, both emigrants and immigrants devoted more of their time to resting than resident females belonging to the same age cohorts did. Time spent feeding on mature fruit was higher for one emigrant and lower for both immigrants compared to the two resident females. Emigrant females had fewer neighbors within a 1-m radius than resident females did, whereas immigrant females were within a 1-m radius of adult females and within a 5-m radius of adult males more often than resident adolescent females were. Adolescent females were displaced on 26 occasions. Displacements occurred mainly during the dry seasons (n = 21) and mainly at food sources (n = 21). Using the number of focal samples conducted on each female as an estimate of observation time, immigrant females were displaced at twice the rate of residents. However, like other behavioral differences detected between resident and migrant adolescent females, differences in individual displacement rates were evident only during the season in which each of the immigrants joined the group. Collectively, our findings imply that female intergroup transfer in this population involves relatively mild, short-term costs.     

Diet in one group of woolly spider monkeys,or muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides)

Data on feeding behavior in one group of muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides) were collected during a 14 month study at Fazenda Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Muriquis devoted an average of 51% of their annual feeding time to leaves, 32% to fruits, and 11% to flowers. The high proportion of leaves in their diet is consistent with predictions from the energetics of body size. However, they devoted a greater proportion of their feeding time to patchy fruit and flower resources than was expected from comparisons with smaller, sympatric howler monkeys. Muriqui diet varied with the availability of preferred food types across sample months. Fruit and flower consumption corresponded to the availability and abundance of these food resources in the forest. Leaves contributed substantially to muriqui diet throughout the year but appeared to be eaten primarily to provide necessary protein and/or necessary bulk. Male and female diets differed only in the greater proportion of feeding time females devoted to flowers.     

Multimale mating and absence of canine tooth dimorphism in woolly spider monkeys (Brachyteles arachnoides)

The relatively low degree of canine tooth dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis has been used as “primary evidence” to support the concept of a mating system of monogamous pair-bonding and male provisioning. A recent field study of woolly spider monkeys shows that these large primates, which lack canine tooth (and body size) dimorphism, are characterized by apolygynous mating system. Male parental care of infants is absent in this species. These data support the view that a lack of canine tooth dimorphism in an anthropoid species does not necessarily imply either a monogamous, pair-bonded mating system or male parental care.     

Habitat,diet, and activity patterns of free-ranging woolly spider monkeys (Brachyteles arachnoides E. Geoffroy 1806)

Results of a 10-month study of the ecology and behavior of free- ranging woolly spider monkeys (Brachyteles arachnoides)in Brazil show that these animals are strongly folivorous. Leaf-eating accounted for more than 50% of the total feeding time in all samples but one and accounted for more than 80% of the total feeding time in three samples. Mature foliage was routinely eaten. Woolly spider monkeys consistently spend more than 50% of each day quietly resting and sleeping. Animals travel little except when actively feeding and show low levels of social interaction. Such an activity profile suggests that woolly spider monkeys may often be living near the limits of their energetic resources. The social organization of the species is unusual for a folivorous primate in that small groups of females and associated immature animals confine their activities to discrete home-range areas, whereas males are itinerant, traveling over the home ranges of various female groups. Animals sharing a common home-range area show no permanent daily pattern of association other than that of mother-dependent offspring. Foraging alone or with few conspecifics should maximize each individual’s returns from foraging by minimizing the day range that must be traveled each day to locate foods while simultaneously lowering interference competition for higher-quality dietary resources.     

Cranial ontogeny and sexual dimorphism in two new world monkeys: Alouatta caraya (Atelidae) and Cebus apella (Cebidae)

Pattern of skull development and sexual dimorphism was studied in Cebus apella and Alouatta caraya using univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistics. In both species, sexual dimorphism develops because the common growth trajectory in males extends and because of differences in growth rates between sexes. The expectation that the ontogenetic bases of adult dimorphism vary interspecifically is well substantiated by this study. A. caraya exhibits transitional dimorphism in its subadult stage, although the condylobasal length, zygomatic breadth, and rostrum length are strongly dimorphic in the final adult stage, being greater in males. Most cranial measurements in C. apella exhibit significant dimorphism in the adult stage, being strongly influenced by a faster rate of growth in males. Sexual dimorphism is also evidenced through sex differences in growth rates in several cranial measurements. These results also indicate that different ontogenetic mechanisms are acting in C. apella and A. caraya and reveal differences in the way through which neotropical primates attain adult sexual dimorphism. J. Morphol. 2011. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Extensive enlargement of the maxillary sinus in Alouatta caraya (mammalia, primates, cebidae): an allometric approach to skull pneumatization in Atelinae

In contrast to the paranasal sinuses of Old World monkeys and hominoids, little information is available about the paranasal sinuses of New World monkeys. Because this information is crucial in order to draw further conclusions about the evolution and biological role of skull pneumatization, this study investigates the morphology of the paranasal sinuses in adult black-and-gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya). Volumes of the paranasal sinuses were calculated using computer software (SURFdriver or Allegro) from serial coronal CT scans of 20 skulls of both sexes. Skull pneumatization in A. caraya is more complex than in other higher primates. In both sexes, the maxillary sinus (MS) is the only pneumatic cavity and enlarges regularly into neighboring bones such as the frontal bone and the basisphenoid. The resulting pansinus is often partitioned by several vertical septa. As in most external cranial dimensions, mean MS volume of A. caraya (male 4.08 cm(3); female 2.00 cm(3)) shows significant sexual dimorphism. Reduced major axis regression analysis between MS volume and different cranial dimensions for A. caraya (and for available data from other platyrrhines) suggests a distinct association for this group, with Alouatta having one of the largest pneumatic cavities. The combination of this unusual expansion of the MS of Alouatta and the occurrence of distinct septa within the sinus may be a consequence of the distinct skull architecture of Alouatta.     

The use of new world primates for biomedical research: an overview of the last four decades

Animal experimentation contributes significantly to the progression of science. Nonhuman primates play a particularly important role in biomedical research not only because of their anatomical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral similarities with humans but also because of their close phylogenetic affinities. In order to investigate the use of New World primates (NWP) in biomedical research over the last four decades (1966–2005), we performed a quantitative study of the literature listed in bibliographic databases from the Health Sciences. The survey was performed for each genus of NWP that has been bred in the National Center of Primates in Brazil. The number of articles published was determined for each genus and sorted according to the country from which the studies originated and the general scientific field. The data obtained suggests that Brazil is a leader in generating knowledge with NWP models for translational medicine. Am. J. Primatol. 72:1055–1061, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Phylogenetic significance of the skin of New World monkeys (order primates, infraorder Platyrrhini).

The combined properties of a given cutaneous system, like other characters classically employed by systematic zoologists, are useful criteria in the assessment of primate taxonomy and phylogeny. From the synthesis of all available data, it is also concluded that (1) the results define a baseline regarding the normal histology and histochemistry of the skin of most genera and many species of New World monkeys; (2) intrageneric and intraspecific subtleties in cutaneous variation exist in primate integument; (3) single and multiple cutaneous traits contribute to the characterization and accurate identification of most levels of taxa within the primate hierarchy; (4) some traits, however, negate recent taxonomic practices, e.g., the familial position of Callimico; (5) basic cutaneous patterns confirm currently accepted concepts of taxonomy and phylogeny; and (6) the various cutaneous signatures of extant platyrrhines record a history of adaptive radiation in isolation, and suggest that the designation of at least two distinct families is warranted.     

Fatal toxoplasmosis in a southern muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides) from São Paulo state,Brazil: Pathological,immunohistochemical, and molecular characterization

We report the pathological, immunohistochemical, and molecular features of fatal acute systemic toxoplasmosis in an adult, female, free‐living southern muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides) from São Paulo state, Brazil. PCR‐RFLP genotyping analysis identified the #21 genotype of Toxoplasma gondii. This represents the first report of acute toxoplasmosis involving this genotype in humans and animals.     

Lack of morphological coevolution between male forelegs and female wings in Themira (Sepsidae: Diptera: Insecta)

The complex, species-specific foreleg armature in males of the genus Themira (Diptera: Sepsidae) provides an ideal system for testing competing hypotheses for the evolution of sexually dimorphic character divergence. In sepsid flies, the male holds onto the female by clasping her wing base with his modified forelegs. In the present study, we document the male leg and the female wing morphology using scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy. We use a phylogenetic tree for Themira to reconstruct male foreleg and female wing evolution and demonstrate that the male legs have evolved elaborate structures with little or no corresponding changes in wing morphology. This lack of interspecific variation in female wings is not in agreement with the hypothesis of a morphological 'evolutionary arms race' between males and females. However, there is also no evidence for sex-specific wing differences in sensory organs on the wing base that may explain how females could assess males according to Eberhard's 'cryptic female choice' hypothesis. Finally, our study reveals the function of several novel morphological clasping structures and documents that the male foreleg characters in Themira are highly homoplastic. Male forelegs in two clades evolve considerably faster than in other species or clades. These two clades include Themira superba and Themira leachi , species that have some of the most dramatically modified forelegs known in Diptera.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 227–238.     

New notharctine (primates,adapiformes) skull from the Uintan (middle Eocene) of San Diego County,California

A new genus and species of notharctine primate, Hesperolemur actius, is described from Uintan (middle Eocene) aged rocks of San Diego County, California. Hesperolemur differs from all previously described adapiforms in having the anterior third of the ectotympanic anulus fused to the internal lateral wall of the auditory bulla. In this feature Hesperolemur superficially resembles extant cheirogaleids. Hesperolemur also differs from previously known adapiforms in lacking bony canals that transmit the internal carotid artery through the tympanic cavity. Hesperolemur, like the later occurring North American cercamoniine Mahgarita stevensi, appears to have lacked a stapedial artery. Evidence from newly discovered skulls of Notharctus and Smilodectes, along with Hesperolemur, Mahgarita, and Adapis, indicates that the tympanic arterial circulatory pattern of these adapiforms is characterized by stapedial arteries that are smaller than promontory arteries, a feature shared with extant tarsiers and anthropoids and one of the characteristics often used to support the existence of a haplorhine-strepsirhine dichotomy among extant primates. The existence of such a dichotomy among Eocene primates is not supported by any compelling evidence. Hesperolemur is the latest occurring notharctine primate known from North America and is the only notharctine represented among a relatively diverse primate fauna from southern California. The coastal lowlands of southern California presumably served as a refuge area for primates during the middle and later Eocene as climates deteriorated in the continental interior. Hesperolemur probably was an immigrant taxon that entered California from either the northern (Wyoming/Utah) or southern (New Mexico) western interior during the middle Eocene © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

浙江丽水中国石龙子的食性、两性异形和雌性繁殖

丽水分布的中国石龙子（Ｅｕｍｅｃｅｓ ｃｈｉｎｅｎｓｉｓ）摄入的食物均为无脊椎动物,分别属于环节、软体和节肢动物,涉及３０余科,成体和幼体的食物生态位宽度分别为７．２６和６．６９,成体的幼体的食物生态们重叠度为０．５９。性成熟雄性个体大于雌体。成雄和幼体的头长和头宽随体长ＳＶＬ的增长速率大于成雌,成雄头长随ＳＶＬ的增长速度显著大于幼体,成雌和幼体的头长随ＳＶＬ的增长速率无显著差异。成雄头部大于成雌