Contrasting flowering phenology and species richness in abiotically and biotically pollinated angiosperms

Abstract Biotic pollination is thought to correlate with increased interspecific competition for pollination among plants and a higher speciation rate. In this study we compared patterns of flowering phenology and species richness between abiotically (wind) and biotically pollinated plants, using phylogenetically independent contrasts. We compiled phenological data from eight local seasonal floras, in which we found geographically overlapping sister clades. Of 65 documented origins of wind pollination, we were able to use up to 17 independent contrasts. In contrast to previous studies we found no difference in global species richness between wind- and biotically pollinated sister clades. Regarding phenology, we found wider phenological spread in biotically pollinated clades, earlier flowering onset in wind-pollinated trees, but no difference in duration of flowering between pollination modes. These results corroborate previous views that niche space is more constrained for wind-pollinated species, and that niche partitioning is less important between wind-pollinated plants compared to plants pollinated by animals.     

传粉方式和果实类型对木本植物繁殖物候的影响

该研究利用谱系独立比较法(Phylogenetically Independent Contrasts,PIC)和Wilcoxon秩和检验法,分析中国科学院植物研究所植物园(39°54'N,116°12'E)中的84个物种170株个体的传粉方式和果实类型对木本开花时间和结实时间的影响,其中Wilcoxon秩和检验法检验的结果作为PIC检验结果的参考。结果表明:(1)传粉方式显著影响植物开花和结实时间,风媒花植物比虫媒花植物开花和结实早;(2)果实类型对结实时间的影响在考虑和不考虑物种间系统发育关系时表现不同,当不考虑物种间系统发育关系时,肉质果实植物结实时间比非肉质果实植物早;(3)不同的传粉方式间以及不同的果实类型间植物的花果间隙期无显著差异,但本研究结果显示肉质果实植物结实时间比非肉质果实植物大约早20d。由此推论:(1)植物固有属性,如传粉方式和果实类型,会影响植物繁殖物候,且不同的属性影响强度不同;(2)与某一特定物候期或繁殖器官相关性大的属性对该物候期的影响可能更大,如传粉方式对开花时间的影响可能大于其对结实时间的影响,而果实类型对结实物候期的影响更大。     

Species-specific flowering phenology responses to experimental warming and drought alter herbaceous plant species overlap in a temperate–boreal forest community

Background and AimsWarmer temperatures and altered precipitation patterns are expected to continue to occur as the climate changes. How these changes will impact the flowering phenology of herbaceous perennials in northern forests is poorly understood but could have consequences for forest functioning and species interactions. Here, we examine the flowering phenology responses of five herbaceous perennials to experimental warming and reduced summer rainfall over 3 years.MethodsThis study is part of the B4WarmED experiment located at two sites in northern Minnesota, USA. Three levels of warming (ambient, +1.6 °C and +3.1 °C) were crossed with two rainfall manipulations (ambient and 27 % reduced growing season rainfall).Key ResultsWe observed species-specific responses to the experimental treatments. Warming alone advanced flowering for four species. Most notably, the two autumn blooming species showed the strongest advance of flowering to warming. Reduced rainfall alone advanced flowering for one autumn blooming species and delayed flowering for the other, with no significant impact on the three early blooming species. Only one species, Solidago spp., showed an interactive response to warming and rainfall manipulation by advancing in +1.6 °C warming (regardless of rainfall manipulation) but not advancing in the warmest, driest treatment. Species-specific responses led to changes in temporal overlap between species. Most notably, the two autumn blooming species diverged significantly in their flowering timing. In ambient conditions, these two species flowered within the same week. In the warmest, driest treatment, flowering occurred over a month apart.ConclusionsHerbaceous species may differ in how they respond to future climate conditions. Changes to phenology may lead to fewer resources for insects or a mismatch between plants and pollinators.     

Diversity of flowering and fruiting phenology of trees in a tropical deciduous forest in India

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: In the dry tropics, vegetative phenology varies widely with tree characteristics and soil conditions. The present work aims to document the phenological diversity of flowering and fruiting with reference to leafing events in Indian dry-tropical tree species. METHODS: Nine tree species, including one leaf-exchanging and eight deciduous showing varying leafless periods, were studied. Monthly counts of leaves, flowers and fruits were made on 160 tagged twigs on ten individuals of each species for initiation, completion and duration of different phenological events through two annual cycles. KEY RESULTS: Variation in flowering relative to leaf flushing (which occurred just prior to or during a hot, dry summer) revealed five flowering types: summer flowering (on foliated shoots), rainy-season flowering (on foliated shoots following significant rains), autumn flowering (on shoots with mature leaves), winter flowering (on shoots undergoing leaf fall) and dry-season flowering (on leafless shoots). Duration of the fruiting phenophase was shortest (3-4 months) in dry-season and winter-flowering species, 6-9 months in rainy-and autumn-flowering species, and maximum (11 months) in summer-flowering species. A wide range of time lag (<1 to >8 months) between the start of vegetative (first-leaf flush) and reproductive (first-visible flower) phases was recorded in deciduous species; this time lag was correlated with the extent of the leafless period. A synthesis of available phenological information on 119 Indian tropical trees showed that summer-flowering species were most abundant (56 % of total species) amongst the five types recognized. CONCLUSIONS: The wide diversity of seasonal flowering and fruiting with linkages to leaf flush time and leafless period reflect the fact that variable reproductive and survival strategies evolved in tree species under a monsoonic bioclimate. Flowering periodicity has evolved as an adaptation to an annual leafless period and the time required for the fruit to develop. The direct relationship between leafless period (inverse of growing period) and time lag between onset of vegetative and reproductive phases reflects the partitioning of resource use for supporting these phases. Predominance of summer flowering coupled with summer leaf flushing seems to be a unique adaptation in trees to survive under a strongly seasonal tropical climate.     

Dispersal mode constrains allocation of carbon and mineral nutrients in seeds of forest and savanna trees

• Species vary in seed size and content of stored reserves, which can be related to dispersal strategies and type of habitat in which they are found. We compare seed carbon and nutrient reserves of anemochorous and zoochorous trees from the Cerrado of central Brazil.
• We measured seed dry mass, lipids, non‐structural carbohydrates (starch and total soluble sugars), carbon and mineral nutrients in ten forest and 13 savanna species, each classified as having wind‐ or animal‐dispersed seeds. We used phylogenetically independent contrasts to test for correlations among these traits.
• Seeds of anemochorous species were lighter, with higher concentrations of C, N, P, Ca and Mg. Lipids were the dominant carbon reserve for most anemochorous species, underpinning the importance of allocation to compact carbon reserves. Starch, lipids or soluble sugars were the major carbon reserve in zoochorous seeds. Savanna and forest species did not differ in seed mass or in total carbon reserves. However, seeds of forest species had higher concentrations of starch than seeds of savanna species. Lipid and starch negatively correlated across species, suggesting a trade‐off between starch and lipids as major seed carbon reserves. Calcium was positively correlated with Mn and B, while Mg was positively correlated with C, N, P, K, S, Zn and B. Potassium, S and Cl were positively correlated, while P was positively correlated with Mg and Zn.
• Dispersal mode rather than vegetation type constrained seed mass and seed storage allocation patterns in forest and savanna trees. We provide evidence that similar mechanisms are involved in seed storage of carbon and mineral nutrients across species.

     

Fruit set in a deceptive orchid: The effect of flowering phenology,display size,and local floral abundance

We investigated the effect of flowering time, display size, and local floral density on fruit set in Tolumnia variegata, a pollination-limited orchid that offers no reward to its pollinator(s). During 1990, natural variation in flowering time, display size, and fruit set were monitored in 508 plants at one locality in Puerto Rico. The following season, orchid floral abundance per host tree (Randia aculeata) was manipulated to investigate its effect on fruit set. Four floral abundance treatments were established (700, 500, 300, and 100), each replicated four times. Flowering time was the most important trait affecting fruit set. The proportion of plants setting at least one fruit was significantly high early and late in the season, but low during the flowering peak. Thus, strong disruptive selection differential on flowering phenology was found. Display size had little effect on fruit set. A weak, but significant disruptive selection differential on display size was found. Orchid floral abundance per host tree had a significant effect on fruit set. Early in the season, T. variegata flowers with intermediate number of conspecific flowers exhibited a greater probability of setting fruit than those in host trees with fewer or more flowers. Our results show that flowering phenology may be evolutionarily unstable, possibly a consequence of the deception pollination system. Furthermore, a deception strategy would be relatively unsuccessful in populations where plants are found in either very dense or sparse patches.     

Contribution of woody debris to trout habitat modification in small streams in secondary deciduous forest, northern Japan

Field studies to examine the influence of woody debris on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) abundance through habitat modification were conducted in two small streams, the Horonai and Uenae streams, running through secondary deciduous forest in south-western Hokkaido, northern Japan. Reach-based woody debris volume (total woody debris volume per 100 m² of study reach) was significantly correlated with the total basal area of riparian stands along the margins of the Horonai stream, but no significant relationship was evident between them for the Uenae stream. This inconsistency between the streams was considered to be a result of the difference in stream size (width, depth and discharge). Woody debris was the principal agent for pool formation, although it had a far smaller volume than that found in streams draining old-growth coniferous forest in North America, where most of the previous studies have been carried out. Untransported debris pieces of larger volume more effectively contributed to pool formation than smaller transported pieces. The volume of individual debris scour pools was positively correlated with the volume of woody debris associated with each. Similarly, reach-based pool volume increased with total woody debris volume, but the relationship was less clear in the Uenae stream, having more abundant transported woody debris than the Horonai stream. The biomass of rainbow trout in individual pools, which were regarded as the most preferred habitat type for stream salmonids, was correlated with pool volume. A positive relationship also existed between reach-based standing crop and pool volume. These results revealed that secondary deciduous forest, like old-growth coniferous forest, plays an important role in enhancing the carrying capacity for rainbow trout by supplying woody debris which promoted preferred habitat formation.     

Fruiting phenology of animal-dispersed plants in response to winter migration of frugivores in a warm temperate forest on Yakushima Island, Japan

The fruiting phenology of animal-dispersed plants was observed in a warm temperate, evergreen forest on Yakushima Island. The number of ripe fruits was counted for 22 trees, four lianas and one parasitic epiphyte species with sapfruit. These fruits were consumed by birds and Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui). Birds with small gapes (e.g. Japanese white-eye [Zosterops japonica]) consumed only small fruit less than 6 mm in diameter, while birds with large gapes (e.g. red-capped green pigeon [Sphenurus formosae]) and Japanese macaques consumed a wide range of fruits from 4 to 16 mm in diameter. The larger animals did not ignore the smaller fruits. Brown-eared bulbul (Hypsipetes amaurotis) and Japanese white-eye were the main consumers of sapfruit in terms of frequency in winter. Some of the observed consumers were year-round residents, but most of the consumers migrated to Yakushima Island from the main islands of Japan to overwinter (from November to March), and their abundance in winter was four times as high as during the rest of the year (from May to October). In 23 of the 27 plant species investigated, sapfruit production coincided with their immigration season, whereas tree species bear capsules and nuts during autumn from September to November. We suggest that sapfruit species set their ripe period to the season when frugivorous birds are most abundant.     

Plant reproductive phenology over four years including an episode of general flowering in a lowland dipterocarp forest,Sarawak, Malaysia

The first systematic observation of a general flowering, a phenomenon unique to lowland mixed-dipterocarp forests in Southeast Asia, is presented. During general flowering, which occurs at irregular intervals of 3–10 yr, nearly all dipterocarp species together with species of other families come heavily into flower. We monitored reproductive phenology of 576 individual plants representing 305 species in 56 families in Sarawak, Malaysia. Observations continued for 53 mo from August 1992 and covered one episode of a general flowering cycle. Among 527 effective reproductive events during 43 mo, 57% were concentrated in the general flowering period (GFP) of 10 mo in 1996. We classified 257 species into flowering types based on timing and frequency of flowering. The most abundant type was “general flowering” (35%), which flowered only during GFP. The others were “supra-annual” (19%), “annual” (13%), and “sub-annual” (5%) types. General flowering type and temporal aggregation in reproductive events were commonly found among species in various categories of taxonomic groups, life forms, pollination systems, and fruit types. Possible causes for general flowering, such as promotion of pollination brought about by interspecific synchronization and paucity of climatic cues suitable for flowering trigger, are proposed, in addition to the predator satiation hypothesis of Janzen (1974) .     

Seasonality in the equatorial tropics: Flower,fruit, and leaf phenology of montane trees in the highlands of Southwest Uganda

Phenology influences many forest functions and can inform forest conservation and management, yet representative phenological data for most common tropical forest tree species remain sparse or absent. Between June 2011 and December 2013, we investigated flowering, fruiting, and leafing patterns in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, a montane forest located near the equator in Uganda, drawing on 16,410 observations of 530 trees of 54 species located between 2066 and 2527 m in elevation. The park's climate is equatorial with two wet and dry seasons each year. Flowering and fruiting were strongly seasonal while patterns in leafing were less pronounced. Flower occurrence peaked at the beginning of the short dry season followed by a pronounced trough during the beginning and the middle of the short wet season. Fruit occurrence had a pronounced peak during high rainfall months in March through April with most fruits ripening during drier months in May through July. Fruit scarcity was observed for a 4-month period spanning September to December and most flushing of leaves noted at the end of the wet season in November and December. Our binomial generalized linear mixed models indicated that flowering and fruiting were negatively associated with temperature and that leafing activity was positively associated with rainfall and temperature. These findings are consistent with the insolation- and water-limitation hypotheses suggesting that the seasonally varying availability of resources such as light, water, and nutrients determines these phenological patterns. Ideally, prolonged, multi-year community-level studies would be supported so as to better characterize the influence of climate and of climate variability.     

Climber species composition, abundance and relationship with trees in a Nigerian secondary forest

Climbers play different roles in forest biology and ecology and are the first to be eliminated during forest clearing but little is known about the species composition, distribution and relationship with tree species of this group of plants of tropical forest. This study thus investigated the species composition, abundance and tree relationship of climbers along altitudinal gradient in four 0.06 ha plots in a secondary forest at Ile‐Ife, Nigeria. All trees ≥10 cm g.b.h were examined for the presence of climbers in the plots. There were 49 climber species consisting of 35 liana and fourteen vine species distributed over 41 genera and 28 families in the forest. Lianas contributed 34% and vines 13.7% of the plant species in the forest. Climber basal area, density, number of species, genera and families increased with altitude. Forty‐two per cent (42%) of the trees in the forest carried climbers. There was significant positive correlation (P ≤ 0.05) between girth sizes of host trees of 31–50 cm with the girths of climbers on them indicating that trees of these girth sizes are highly susceptible to climber infestation. Tree species host density and size are important factors in determining the presence of climbers on a tree.     

DNA barcoding herbaceous and woody plant species at a subalpine forest dynamics plot in Southwest China

Although DNA barcoding has been widely used to identify plant species composition in temperate and tropical ecosystems, relatively few studies have used DNA barcodes to document both herbaceous and woody components of forest plot. A total of 201 species (72 woody species and 129 herbaceous species) representing 135 genera distributed across 64 families of seed plants were collected in a 25 ha CForBio subalpine forest dynamics plot. In total, 491 specimens were screened for three DNA regions of the chloroplast genome (rbcL, matK, and trnH‐psbA) as well as the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA. We quantified species resolution for each barcode separately or in combination using a ML tree‐based method. Amplification and sequencing success were highest for rbcL, followed by trnH‐psbA, which performed better than ITS and matK. The rbcL + ITS barcode had slightly higher species resolution rates (88.60%) compared with rbcL + matK (86.60%) and rbcL + trnH‐psbA (86.01%). The addition of trnH‐psbA or ITS to the rbcL + matK barcode only marginally increased species resolution rates, although in combination the four barcodes had the highest discriminatory power (90.21%). The situations where DNA barcodes did not discriminate among species were typically associated with higher numbers of co‐occurring con‐generic species. In addition, herbaceous species were much better resolved than woody species. Our study represents one of the first applications of DNA barcodes in a subalpine forest dynamics plot and contributes to our understanding of patterns of genetic divergence among woody and herbaceous plant species.     

Determinants of local abundance and range size in forest vascular plants

Aim For a large set of forest herbs we tested: (1) whether there is a positive relationship between local abundance and geographical range size; (2) whether abundance or range size are affected by the niche breadths of species or niche availability; and (3) whether these are affected by the species life‐history traits. Location Northwestern Germany. Methods We measured abundance as mean density in 22 base‐rich deciduous forests and recorded range size as area of occupancy on four different spatial scales (local to national). Niche breadth was expressed in terms of habitat specificity (specialists, generalists) and of the ability to grow across a broad range of soil pH. The species’ pH niche position was used as a measure of the importance of habitat availability. As life‐history traits we used diaspore mass and number, plant height, seed longevity, lifespan/clonality, pollination mode, dispersal capability and flowering time. Results There were mainly no positive relationships between the abundance of species and their range size, as tested across species and across phylogenetically independent contrasts. Forest specialists were generally distributed less widely than generalists, but habitat specificity was not related to local abundance. Species with a broader pH niche breadth were more common, but the positive relationships between niche breadth and abundance or range size disappeared when accounting for sample size effects. Clonal species with few and heavy diaspores were most abundant, as well as early‐flowering species and those lacking dispersal structures. Local and regional range size were determined largely by habitat availability, while national range was positively affected by plant height and diaspore mass. Main conclusions Different processes determine the local density of species and their range size. Abundance within habitat patches appears to be related mainly to the species life histories, especially to their capacity for extensive clonal reproduction, whereas range size appears to be determined strongly by the availability of suitable habitat.     

Rainfall and flowering synchrony in a tropical shrub: Variable selection on the flowering time ofErythroxylum havanense

Summary We tested the adaptive significance of flowering synchrony by means of a quantitative analysis of selection and by flowering induction experiments with the deciduous shrubErythroxylum havanense. Temporal schedules of flower and fruit production were determined for a local population (in three sites) in a Mexican seasonal forest for 2 years (1987–1988). The consequences of natural variation in flowering time (flowering initiation day) on maternal reproductive success (fecundity) were evaluated. We observed high levels of inter- and intraindividual flowering synchrony in 1987, but not in 1988 and this contrast was related to differences in rainfall patterns between the two years. A significant proportion (15.4%) of the phenotypic variation in flowering initiation day was accounted for by environmental variance. The expression of phenotypic variance of flowering time and, consequently, the opportunity for selection to act, are controlled by annual variation in rainfall. Despite the between-year difference in flowering synchrony, we detected a relatively intense directional selection on flowering initiation day in both years, but selection coefficients were of opposite sign (standardized directional gradients were –0.326 and 0.333 for 1987 and 1988, respectively). For both years there was a significant relationship between individual relative fitness and the number of neighbouring flowering plants in a given day, suggesting positive frequency-dependent selection.     

Herbivorous insect species in the tree canopy of a relict South African forest

Abstract.

• 1 The herbivorous insects on twelve species of evergreen broadleafed trees were repeatedly sampled over a period of 11 months in a small relict forest on the east coast of South Africa. This extraordinarily speciose forest patch has an unusually high proportion of endemic tree species, some of which are extremely rare.
• 2 The insect herbivore fauna (number of species) seems to be markedly depauperate compared to that reported on native, broadleafed trees from other parts of the world. Some possible reasons for this are discussed.
• 3 The total number of herbivorous insect species on each tree species was strongly correlated with the local relative abundance of the host plant species.
• 4 There was no relationship between the total number of insect herbivore species on each tree species and the relative taxonomic isolation of the trees. The proportion of seemingly unique (= specialist) herbivorous insect species (i.e. those that occurred on one tree species only) was greatest on taxonomically isolated trees.
• 5 A fundamental deficiency in the interpretation of the data in this study, and of many other similar studies that report on the number of insect species on plants, is discussed, namely the lack of clarity on the closeness of the association between individual insect herbivore species and their respective host plants.

     

Spatiotemporal patterns and dynamics of species richness and abundance of woody plant functional groups in a tropical forest landscape of Hainan Island, South China

Tropical forests are among the most species-diverse ecosystems on Earth. Their structures and ecological functions are complex to understand. Functional group is defined as a group of species that play similar roles in an ecosystem. The functional group approach has been regarded as an effective way of linking the compositions of complex ecosystems with their ecological functions. To understand the variation of functional groups in species-rich ecosystems after disturbance, the present study investigated the spatial pattern and temporal dynamics of woody plants in a typically fragmented natural forest landscape of Hainan Island in South China. The study area was classified into eight landscape types based on vegetation type, disturbance manner and the time of recovery. The woody plant species were aggregated into seven functional groups based on the growth form, successional status and plant size. The results gained from the present study showed that all functional groups, except for the emergent and canopy tree species, were present in all eight landscape types. Each landscape type had different numbers of dominant functional groups. There are similar species richness and stem abundance structure among functional groups between mid-successional clear cut lowland rainforest and old growth tropical coniferous forest. This similarity exists in selective logged lowland rainforest and old-growth lowland rainforest, as well as among landscape types of montane rainforest. The functional groups with the same successional status had similar patterns of species richness and stem abundance ratios among different landscape types. The variation patterns of functional groups along the successional stages in terms of species richness and stem abundance among the tropical lowland rainforest landscape types were more similar to each other than those in the tropical montane reinforest landscape types. This study provides further support for the competition-colonization tradeoff and successional niche theory as opposed to models of neutrality and ecological equivalence.     

古田山亚热带常绿阔叶林树皮厚度的变异特征

树皮是木本植物茎干最外层结构,具有保护茎干、养分储存与运输等重要作用。因此,树皮厚度是一项非常重要的功能性状,其变异不仅影响树皮的各种生态功能,还能影响群落构建与物种共存。然而,以往对树皮厚度的研究集中于火灾易发生态系统,对火灾不易发生的亚热带常绿阔叶林的研究仍较缺乏。测量了古田山国家级自然保护区亚热带常绿阔叶林内树种的树皮厚度,并检验了总树皮厚度、内树皮厚度与外树皮厚度在各分类群间以及功能群间的差异。结果发现：1）39个树种807个个体的总树皮厚度、内树皮厚度与外树皮厚度均值分别为1.90 mm、1.38 mm和0.54 mm。漆树科（Anacardiaceae）、杨梅科（Myricaceae）以及亚热带常绿阔叶林代表类群壳斗科（Fagaceae）、山茶科（Theaceae）的树皮厚度较大。短柄枹（Quercus serrata）、木荷（Schima superba）、小叶青冈（Cyclobalanopsis myrsinifolia）等树种的树皮厚度较大。2）种间、科间的各树皮厚度差异均显著。不同功能类群间,乔木类群的各树皮厚度均较灌木类群大,常绿类群的各树皮厚度均较落叶类群大（内树皮厚度除外）。本次研究结果表明,相对于火灾易发生态系统中的树皮厚度,古田山亚热带常绿阔叶林群落内的树皮厚度相对较薄,表明这些森林树种对当地湿润气候的适应性。同时,树皮厚度在各种分类水平与功能群水平间的显著变异,反映了群落内不同生态策略的共存。     

Landscape patterns and plant species diversity of forest reserves in the Kanto region, Japan

Plant species richness of twenty old-growth forest reserves in the cool-temperate zone in the Kanto region, Japan were investigated to detect the effect of forest fragmentation. The species richness of trees and forest floor plants were analyzed by multiple regression models relating to nine variables on the characteristics of landscape, local habitat and forest stand. The total species diversity did not have a significant correlation with any variables of landscape patterns. In this study, single large reserve in the SLOSS discussion did not seem very effective to preserve more species. However, forest reserves in large patches tend to have relatively infrequent species. Large patches of natural forests were regarded as one of the important factors to preserve infrequent species.     

Herbarium specimens show patterns of fruiting phenology in native and invasive plant species across New England

Premise of the Study

Patterns of fruiting phenology in temperate ecosystems are poorly understood, despite the ecological importance of fruiting for animal nutrition and seed dispersal. Herbarium specimens represent an under‐utilized resource for investigating geographical and climatic factors affecting fruiting times within species, patterns in fruiting times among species, and differences between native and non‐native invasive species.

Methods

We examined over 15,000 herbarium specimens, collected and housed across New England, and found 3159 specimens with ripe fruits, collected from 1849–2013. We examined patterns in fruiting phenology among 37 native and 18 invasive woody plant species common to New England. We compared fruiting dates between native and invasive species, and analyzed how fruiting phenology varies with temperature, space, and time.

Key Results

Spring temperature and year explained a small but significant amount of the variation in fruiting dates. Accounting for the moderate phylogenetic signal in fruiting phenology, invasive species fruited 26 days later on average than native species, with significantly greater standard deviations.

Conclusions

Herbarium specimens can be used to detect patterns in fruiting times among species. However, the amount of intraspecific variation in fruiting times explained by temporal, geographic, and climatic predictors is small, due to a combination of low temporal resolution of fruiting specimens and the protracted nature of fruiting. Later fruiting times in invasive species, combined with delays in autumn bird migrations in New England, may increase the likelihood that migratory birds will consume and disperse invasive seeds in New England later into the year.