The Potential of Dark Septate Endophytes to Form Root Symbioses with Ectomycorrhizal and Ericoid Mycorrhizal Middle European Forest Plants

The unresolved ecophysiological significance of Dark Septate Endophytes (DSE) may be in part due to existence of morphologically indistinguishable cryptic species in the most common Phialocephala fortinii s. l.—Acephala applanata species complex (PAC). We inoculated three middle European forest plants (European blueberry, Norway spruce and silver birch) with 16 strains of eight PAC cryptic species and other DSE and ectomycorrhizal/ericoid mycorrhizal fungi and focused on intraradical structures possibly representing interfaces for plant-fungus nutrient transfer and on host growth response. The PAC species Acephala applanata simultaneously formed structures resembling ericoid mycorrhiza (ErM) and DSE microsclerotia in blueberry. A. macrosclerotiorum, a close relative to PAC, formed ectomycorrhizae with spruce but not with birch, and structures resembling ErM in blueberry. Phialocephala glacialis, another close relative to PAC, formed structures resembling ErM in blueberry. In blueberry, six PAC strains significantly decreased dry shoot biomass compared to ErM control. In birch, one A. macrosclerotiorum strain increased root biomass and the other shoot biomass in comparison with non-inoculated control. The dual mycorrhizal ability of A. macrosclerotiorum suggested that it may form mycorrhizal links between Ericaceae and Pinaceae. However, we were unable to detect this species in Ericaceae roots growing in a forest with presence of A. macrosclerotiorum ectomycorrhizae. Nevertheless, the diversity of Ericaceae mycobionts was high (380 OTUs) with individual sites often dominated by hitherto unreported helotialean and chaetothyrialean/verrucarialean species; in contrast, typical ErM fungi were either absent or low in abundance. Some DSE apparently have a potential to form mycorrhizae with typical middle European forest plants. However, except A. applanata, the tested representatives of all hitherto described PAC cryptic species formed typical DSE colonization without specific structures necessary for mycorrhizal nutrient transport. A. macrosclerotiorum forms ectomycorrhiza with conifers but not with broadleaves and probably does not form common mycorrhizal networks between conifers with Ericaceae.     

Mycorrhiza Reduces Adverse Effects of Dark Septate Endophytes (DSE) on Growth of Conifers

Mycorrhizal roots are frequently colonized by fungi of the Phialocephala fortinii s.l. - Acephala applanata species complex (PAC). These ascomycetes are common and widespread colonizers of tree roots. Some PAC strains reduce growth increments of their hosts but are beneficial in protecting roots against pathogens. Nothing is known about the effects of PAC on mycorrhizal fungi and the PAC-mycorrhiza association on plant growth, even though these two fungal groups occur closely together in natural habitats. We expect reduced colonization rates and reduced negative effects of PAC on host plants if roots are co-colonized by an ectomycorrhizal fungus (ECM). Depending on the temperature regime interactions among the partners in this tripartite ECM-PAC-plant system might also change. To test our hypotheses, effects of four PAC genotypes (two pathogenic and two non-pathogenic on the Norway spruce), mycorrhization by Laccaria bicolor (strain S238N) and two temperature regimes (19°C and 25°C) on the biomass of the Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedlings were studied. Mycorrhization compensated the adverse effects of PAC on the growth of the Norway spruce at both temperatures. The growth of the Douglas-fir was not influenced either by PAC or mycorrhization at 19°C, but at 25°C mycorrhization had a similar protective effect as in the Norway spruce. The compensatory effects probably rely on the reduction of the PAC-colonization density by mycorrhizae. Temperature and the PAC strain only had a differential effect on the biomass of the Norway spruce but not on the Douglas-fir. Higher temperature reduced mycorrhization of both hosts. We conclude that ectomycorrhizae form physical and/or physiological barriers against PAC leading to reduced PAC-colonization of the roots. Additionally, our results indicate that global warming could cause a general decrease of mycorrhization making primary roots more accessible to other symbionts and pathogens.     

The Response of Dark Septate Endophytes (DSE) to Heavy Metals in Pure Culture

Dark septate endophytes (DSE) occur widely in association with plants exposed to heavy metal stress. However, little is known about the response of DSE exposed to heavy metals. In this study, five DSE were isolated from the roots of Astragalus adsurgens Pall. seedlings growing on lead-zinc mine tailings in China. Based on morphological characteristics and DNA sequence analyses, the isolates were identified as Gaeumannomyces cylindrosporus, Paraphoma chrysanthemicola, Phialophora mustea, Exophiala salmonis, and Cladosporium cladosporioides. G. cylindrosporus was selected to explore responses to Pb stress. Scanning electron microscopic observations of G. cylindrosporus grown on solid medium revealed curling of hyphae and formation of hyphal coils in response to Pb. In contrast, in liquid medium, hyphae became thick and swollen with an increase in Pb (II) concentration. We interpret that these changes are related to the variation in cell wall components. We also demonstrated that fungal melanin content increased with the addition of Pb(II). Melanin, as an important component in the cell wall, is known to be an essential antioxidant responsible for decreasing heavy metal toxicity. We also measured the total soluble protein content and glutathione (GSH) concentrations in G. cylindrosporus and found that they initially increased and then decreased with the increase of Pb(II) concentrations. The antioxidant enzyme activities were also examined, and the results showed that superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was significantly positively correlated with Pb(II) concentrations (r = 0.957, P<0.001). Collectively, our observations indicate that the intracellular antioxidant systems, especially fungal melanin, play an important role in abating the hazards of heavy metals.     

不同程度铅锌污染区丛枝菌根真菌和深色有隔内生真菌侵染特征

对陕西凤县铅硐山铅锌矿区4个不同程度铅锌污染样地植物根系的丛枝菌根真菌(AMF)和深色有隔内生真菌(DSE)进行了资源和分布调查。结果表明:(1)无铅锌污染的矿山上调查的15种植物中除黄连木没有检测到AMF侵染、栓皮栎和酸模不能被DSE侵染外,其他植物均能与AMF和DSE共生,但平均侵染率较低,仅分别为32.3%和25.9%;铅锌轻度污染的尾矿荒地和铅中度污染、锌重度污染的尾矿坝植物根系内AMF和DSE侵染率明显提高,AMF的平均侵染率分别为53.3%和68.3%,DSE的平均侵染率分别为38.6%和54.2%;铅锌重度污染的废弃冶炼厂样地植物AMF侵染率明显下降,平均只有17.6%,而DSE的侵染没有受重金属污染的抑制,仍达到60.3%。(2)4个样地植物根际土壤中AMF孢子分布不均匀,每克土的孢子密度在0.08～6.84个,平均为1.5个。对4个样地均有分布的狼牙刺、博落回、山蒿和秦岭风毛菊的AMF、DSE侵染状况调查发现,轻度和中度的铅锌污染能促进AMF与宿主共生关系的建立,而重度污染则显著抑制AMF侵染;AMF孢子密度没有呈现一定的规律性,且与AMF侵染率之间没有显著相关性;DSE侵染率与土壤锌含量存在显著正相关关系(r=0.505,P<0.05),而与土壤铅含量没有显著相关性。可见,AMF和DSE能够广泛存在于铅硐山铅锌矿区,尤其是DSE表现出较强的耐受性和适应性。     

Occurrence of Arbuscular Mycorrhizas and Dark Septate Endophytes in Hydrophytes from Lakes and Streams in Southwest China

In this study, the colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM) and dark septate endophytes (DSE) in 140 specimens of 32 hydrophytes collected from four lakes and four streams in southwest China were investigated. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and DSE colonization in these hydrophytes were rare. Typical AM structures were observed in one of the 25 hydrophytic species collected in lakes and six of the 17 species collected in streams. Spores of 10 identified AMF species and an unidentified Acaulospora sp. were isolated from the sediments. The identified AMF came from the four genera, Acaulospora, Gigaspora, Glomus and Scutellospora . Glomus and G. mosseae were the dominant genus and species respectively in these aquatic environments. The presence of DSE in hydrophytes was recorded for the first time. DSE occurred in one of the 25 hydrophyte species collected in lakes and three of the 17 species collected in streams. (© 2006 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Colonization Characteristics and Composition of Dark Septate Endophytes (DSE) in a Lead and Zinc Slag Heap in Southwest China

The colonization characteristics and diversity of dark septate endophytes (DSE) associated with plants growing in a lead and zinc slag heap with a more than 250-year history in southwestern China were assessed. A total of 117 plant samples belonging to 29 species and 19 families were examined, and 97% (28/29) were colonized by dark septate fungal hyphae or microsclerotia. DSE colonization intensity varied greatly across plant species and also across individuals of the same species, showing a hyphal colonization range of 0.0–35.7%. In total, 38 melanized root-associated fungi with various morphological characteristics were isolated and 82% (31/38) of fungi were closely related to well-known DSE fungi, such as Exophiala spp., Phialophora (= Cadophora) spp., Phialocephala spp., and Leptodontidium spp. Among these, Phialophora and Exophiala were the dominant genera. Our results showed that DSE dominantly colonized the roots of the pioneer plants growing in such an ancient Pb-Zn slag heap. By contributing to metal tolerance and nutrient acquisition, DSE may be integral to the function of metal mine ecosystems.     

Interaction between a Dark Septate Endophytic Isolate from Dendrobium sp. and Roots of D. nobile Seedlings

Interactions between an isolate of dark septate endophytes （DSE） and roots of Dendrobium nobile Lindl. seedlings are reported in this paper. The isolate was obtained from orchid mycorrhizas on Dendrobium sp. in subtropical forest. The fungus formed typical orchid mycorrhiza in aseptic co-culture with D. nobile seedlings on modified Murashige-Skoog （MMS） medium. Anatomic observations of the infected roots showed that the DSE hyphae invaded the velamen layer, passed through passage cells in exodermis, entered the cortex cells, and then formed fungal pelotons of orchid mycorrhiza. D. nobile seedlings＇ plant height, stem diameter, new roots number and biomass were greatly enhanced by inoculating the fungus to seedlings. The fungus was identified as Leptodontidium by sequencing the polymerase chain reaction-amplified rDNA ITS1-5,8S-ITS2 （internal transcribed spacer （ITS）） regions and comparison with similar taxa.     

贵州高原6种掌突蟾形态特征差异分析

本文通过形态指标测量,比较了分布于贵州高原的6种掌突蟾属(Leptobrachella)物种的形态特征差异.结果 显示,头体长比较,6种掌突蟾的头体长从大到小依次为赤水掌突蟾(L.chishuiensis)、绥阳掌突蟾(L.suiyangensis)、金沙掌突蟾(L.jinshaensis)、毕节掌突蟾(L.bijie...     

Co-occurrence Patterns in Carnivorans: Correspondence Between Morphological and Ecological Characteristics of an Assemblage of Carnivorans in Patagonia

We searched for correspondence between morphology and trophic habits in an assemblage of six species of coexisting carnivorans from Patagonia to confirm the predictive power of the study of the trophic morphology as an approach to the study of resource partitioning, which is often utilized in paleontological studies. The six species were assigned to four morphoguilds and to four trophic guilds, although the species composition of both spaces was only coincident during one of the two studied time periods. The most obvious explanation for this lack of correspondence is based on the assumption that species can change from one ecological guild to another, while their relative positions in the morphospace will be fixed. Therefore, the observed lack of correspondence could be searched in the context of differences between the ecological and evolutionary scales. Although morphological specialization toward some type of diet has been corroborated in our assemblage, the inference of interactions in ecological time among species from the past from its morphology must be considered with caution.     

六种芦荟叶的解剖结构及其与芦荟素含量的相关性

应用半薄切片法、高效液相色谱法(HPLC)和荧光显微镜研究了6种芦荟叶的结构、芦荟素的含量和储藏芦荟素的组织。结果表明,6种芦荟叶均由表皮、光合组织、储水组织和维管束组成,都表现出明显的旱生植物肉质叶的结构特征,表皮由一层扁平的细胞组成,其外壁加厚,并覆盖着厚的角质膜,气孔器凹陷,储水组织发达。6种芦荟叶的结构存在显著差异。木立芦荟(Aloe arborescens Mill．)和易变芦荟(A．mutabilis Pillans)的光合组织细胞呈长柱状,类似栅栏薄壁组织。中华芦荟(A．vera L.var．chinensis Berg．)、库拉索芦荟(A．vera L．)、皂叶芦荟(A．saponaria Hawer)和绿芦荟(A．greenii Bak．)则为等直径薄壁细胞。木立芦荟、中华芦荟、易变芦荟和库拉索芦荟的维管束中有大型薄壁细胞,皂叶芦荟和绿芦荟的维管束中无大型薄壁细胞。木立芦荟、易变芦荟和库拉索芦荟在光合组织和储水组织之间有一层不含叶绿体的小型薄壁细胞,包围着储水薄壁组织,称之为储水组织鞘。中华芦荟、皂叶芦荟和绿芦荟则没有储水组织鞘。HPLC测量结果表明,木立芦荟叶芦荟素含量最高,库拉索芦荟和易变芦荟次之,中华芦荟、皂叶芦荟和绿芦荟含量最低。荧光显微镜观察结果表明,在紫外光和蓝光下,黄色和黄绿色小球体仅存在于维管束的大型薄壁细胞、维管束鞘和储水组织鞘中,而光合组织和储水组织中没有黄色和黄绿色小球体。因此,维管束中大型薄壁细胞、维管束鞘和储水组织鞘是芦荟素等蒽醌类物质的储藏场所。综上所述,芦荟素含量与维管束的大型薄壁细胞、维管束鞘和储水组织鞘的情况密切相关。     

六种芦荟叶的解剖结构及其与芦荟素含量的相关性

应用半薄切片法、高效液相色谱法(HPLC)和荧光显微镜研究了6种芦荟叶的结构、芦荟素的含量和储藏芦荟素的组织.结果表明,6种芦荟叶均由表皮、光合组织、储水组织和维管束组成,都表现出明显的旱生植物肉质叶的结构特征,表皮由一层扁平的细胞组成,其外壁加厚,并覆盖着厚的角质膜,气孔器凹陷,储水组织发达.6 种芦荟叶的结构存在显著差异.木立芦荟(Aloe arborescens Mill.)和易变芦荟(A. mutabilis Pillans)的光合组织细胞呈长柱状,类似栅栏薄壁组织.中华芦荟(A. vera L. var. chinensis Berg.)、库拉索芦荟(A. vera L.)、皂叶芦荟(A. saponaria Hawer)和绿芦荟(A. greenii Bak.)则为等直径薄壁细胞.木立芦荟、中华芦荟、易变芦荟和库拉索芦荟的维管束中有大型薄壁细胞,皂叶芦荟和绿芦荟的维管束中无大型薄壁细胞.木立芦荟、易变芦荟和库拉索芦荟在光合组织和储水组织之间有一层不含叶绿体的小型薄壁细胞,包围着储水薄壁组织,称之为储水组织鞘.中华芦荟、皂叶芦荟和绿芦荟则没有储水组织鞘.HPLC测量结果表明,木立芦荟叶芦荟素含量最高,库拉索芦荟和易变芦荟次之,中华芦荟、皂叶芦荟和绿芦荟含量最低.荧光显微镜观察结果表明,在紫外光和蓝光下,黄色和黄绿色小球体仅存在于维管束的大型薄壁细胞、维管束鞘和储水组织鞘中,而光合组织和储水组织中没有黄色和黄绿色小球体.因此,维管束中大型薄壁细胞、维管束鞘和储水组织鞘是芦荟素等蒽醌类物质的储藏场所.综上所述,芦荟素含量与维管束的大型薄壁细胞、维管束鞘和储水组织鞘的情况密切相关.     

Diversity of Cultivated and Uncultivated Actinobacterial Endophytes in the Stems and Roots of Rice

A dual approach consisting of cultivation and molecular retrieval of actinobacterial 16S rRNA genes was used to characterize the diversity of actinobacterial community inhabiting interior of rice stems and roots. Streptomyces is the most frequently isolated genus from rice stems and roots. Forty-five clones chosen randomly among 250 clones in the 16S rRNA gene clone library from roots were affiliated with nine genera of actinobacteria and uncultured actinobacteria (Mycobacterium, Streptomyces, Micromonospora, Actinoplanes, Frankia, Dactylosporangium, Amycolatopsis, Corynebacterium, Rhodococcus, and uncultured actinobacterium). However, 33 clones from stems were affiliated with four genera and uncultured actinobacteria (Streptomyces, Mycobacterium, Nocardiodies, Janibacter, uncultured earthworm cast bacterium, uncultured earthworm intestine bacterium, and uncultured actinobacterium). Species similar to S. cyaneus were isolated from surface-sterilized roots and stems of rice and detected inside rice roots by culture-independent methods. Species similar to S. caviscabies, S. scabies, and S. turgidiscabies were simultaneously detected from the interior of rice stems by the culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. S. galilaeus was detected from the interior of rice stems and roots. These results indicated that some actinobacterial populations in rice stems were correlated with those in roots. Tian and Cao contributed equally to this work     

川中丘陵区3个树种的细根形态和功能异质性分析

以川中丘陵区柏木低效林林窗改造初期种植的银木和香椿细根为研究对象,以未改造的柏木纯林为对照,采用LI-8100土壤碳通量测量系统测定银木、香椿和柏木1~5级细根的原位呼吸速率,并探讨细根形态结构和养分元素浓度与细根呼吸的相关关系,以揭示细根结构与功能异质性。结果表明:银木、香椿和柏木细根的直径、根长、组织碳浓度均随着根序级别的增加而增加,而它们细根的比根长、组织氮浓度和比根呼吸速率均随着根序的增加而降低,树种、根序级及其交互作用对3个树种细根形态、养分浓度和比根呼吸均有显著或极显著影响。回归分析显示,3个树种比根呼吸速率均随细根直径、比根长、N浓度变化呈现出系统性的变化,三者分别能解释64.7%、87.6%和、67.6%的比根呼吸变异。可见,细根在形态和功能上存在明显的异质性,且细根的形态特征、组织化学含量和生理功能之间存在着紧密的联系,为理解植物根系结构与功能变异提供了依据。     

菊科莴苣族6属11种植物的叶表皮形态

在光学显微镜下观察了菊科莴苣族6属11种植物的叶表皮形态,观察了叶上下表皮细胞形状及垂周壁式样、气孔器类型和分布特征。结果表明：这些植物的叶上下表皮细胞多数为不规则形,少数为多边形;垂周壁式样多数为浅波形或深波形,少数为平直形。一些种类气孔器仅分布在下表皮,但也有不少种类上下表皮都有气孔器分布。气孔器都属于无规则型,且都是随机分布。叶表皮显微构造在一定程度上能反映出类群间的关系,为探讨莴苣族的分类学问题提供了新的证据。     

在旱化土壤条件下来自不同生境的20种植物幼苗根系的形态反应的比较(英文)

在浇水和未浇水的塑料管中栽培了 2 0个植物种 ,测量了其幼苗的根深、根重和茎重。这些种的原始生境含水状况差异较大 ,是从沼泽到沙漠的系列。植物种原始生境的水分状况用Ellenberg水分序数定量。幼苗首先在湿沙中生长 2 1d ,然后进入为期也是 2 1d的处理阶段 (浇水和不浇水 )。浇水植株的根深与Ellenberg水分序数无关。在旱化的沙层中 ,源于干旱生境的植物的根深趋向于增加 ,来自湿润生境的则减少。根深塑性 (即未浇水的根深 /浇水的根深 )与Ellenberg水分序数显著相关 (R2 =0 .5 6 ) ,茎 /根比值塑性也与Ellenberg水分序数相关 ,但不如根深塑性的关系明显。根深塑性表现最为明显的植物种具有在未浇水沙层中维持茎生长的最大能力。有迹象表明 ,在浇水处理时 ,来自很干旱生境的植物生长减弱。研究结果表明 :幼苗利用深层水分的能力是植物对干旱生境的主要适应。     

野牡丹科6种植物染色体数目及核型分析

研究了野牡丹科国产野牡丹属(Melastoma L.)4种植物和从国外引种的蒂牡花属(Tibouchina Aubl.)2种植物的染色体数目,并对4种野牡丹属植物的核型进行分析。结果表明, 野牡丹属植物的染色体数目为2n=24,为二倍体植物,蒂牡花属的蒂牡花(T. urvillean)和银毛野牡丹(T. heteromall)的染色体数目为2n=36。核型公式为：野牡丹(M. malabathricum) 2n=10m(2SAT)+14sm;毛稔(M. sanguineurn) 2n=10m+12sm+2st;地稔(M. dodecandrum) 2n=12m+12sm;细叶野牡丹(M. intermedium) 2n=12m＋10sm+2st。核型分析表明国产野牡丹属植物染色体为小染色体,绝对长度为0.43~1.79 µm;核型不对称系数为59.47~62.91,均属2B型。野牡丹属植物的核型为首次报道。     

The Role of Dark Septate Endophytic Fungal Isolates in the Accumulation of Cesium by Chinese Cabbage and Tomato Plants under Contaminated Environments

Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident, the preservation of the food chain from radionuclides contamination has become of crucial importance. The potential of Dark septate endophytic fungi in the management of Cs accumulation in plants under contaminated environments was investigated using Chinese cabbage and tomato plants. Four endophytic fungal isolates of different species, i.e. Pseudosigmoidea ibarakiensis I.4-2-1, Veronaeopsis simplex Y34, Helminthosporium velutinum 41-1, and as yet unidentified taxon 312-6 were tested In Vitro in two levels of Cs (5ppm and 10ppm). On the plant growth, the inoculation of the selected DSEs to both Chinese cabbage and tomato resulted in an increased biomass of up to 82% and 122%, respectively compared to control (non-inoculated) plants. With regards to the Cs accumulation, it varied with the host plant considered. In Chinese cabbage, DSEs inoculation caused higher Cs accumulation in above ground plant parts, whereas in tomato, Cs accumulation decreased significantly with three of the isolates tested, i.e., V. simplex Y34, P. ibarakiensis I.4-2-1, and the as yet unidentified taxon 312-6 suggesting low-risk transfer on the above ground plants parts as a result of high and negative plant reactions rather than high and positive reactions as it is the case with Chinese cabbage. These results suggested that DSEs can be recommended for use with Chinese cabbage to enhance phytoremediation of Cs in surrounding contaminated areas. With tomato, DSEs can be recommended for decreasing the accumulation of Cs in plants under contaminated environments.     

The Predictive Performance and Stability of Six Species Distribution Models

Background

Predicting species’ potential geographical range by species distribution models (SDMs) is central to understand their ecological requirements. However, the effects of using different modeling techniques need further investigation. In order to improve the prediction effect, we need to assess the predictive performance and stability of different SDMs.

Methodology

We collected the distribution data of five common tree species (Pinus massoniana, Betula platyphylla, Quercus wutaishanica, Quercus mongolica and Quercus variabilis) and simulated their potential distribution area using 13 environmental variables and six widely used SDMs: BIOCLIM, DOMAIN, MAHAL, RF, MAXENT, and SVM. Each model run was repeated 100 times (trials). We compared the predictive performance by testing the consistency between observations and simulated distributions and assessed the stability by the standard deviation, coefficient of variation, and the 99% confidence interval of Kappa and AUC values.

Results

The mean values of AUC and Kappa from MAHAL, RF, MAXENT, and SVM trials were similar and significantly higher than those from BIOCLIM and DOMAIN trials (p<0.05), while the associated standard deviations and coefficients of variation were larger for BIOCLIM and DOMAIN trials (p<0.05), and the 99% confidence intervals for AUC and Kappa values were narrower for MAHAL, RF, MAXENT, and SVM. Compared to BIOCLIM and DOMAIN, other SDMs (MAHAL, RF, MAXENT, and SVM) had higher prediction accuracy, smaller confidence intervals, and were more stable and less affected by the random variable (randomly selected pseudo-absence points).

Conclusions

According to the prediction performance and stability of SDMs, we can divide these six SDMs into two categories: a high performance and stability group including MAHAL, RF, MAXENT, and SVM, and a low performance and stability group consisting of BIOCLIM, and DOMAIN. We highlight that choosing appropriate SDMs to address a specific problem is an important part of the modeling process.     

Genetic Variability and Taxonomical Considerations about Six Species of European Cardueline Finches (Aves, Passeriformes)

Electrophoretic patterns of seven enzyme systems and two nonenzymatic proteins, albumin and haemoglobin, representing 13 loci, have been investigated in six species of cardueline finches with Palearctic distribution. A new locus, SOD-3, has been characterized in this subfamily. The two nonenzymatic proteins turned out to be the best genetic markers. From the analysis of the genetic distances it emerges that the mean values between species are higher than those reported for other groups of birds. However, the same results were obtained for other species of the same subfamily native to North America. In both cases this result is probably due to a classification that disagrees with the real cardueline phylogeny. In the present study, the attribution of the Greenfinch to the genus Carduelis raises the mean value of distance between species.     

The Relationship Between Size of Shoot Apices and Morphological Features of Mature Leaves and Stems of Four Species of Angiosperm Trees

Shoot apex, leaf and stem growth parameters for four speciesof deciduous trees were measured. Only in elm was there a correlationbetween the size of shoot apical meristems and mature leaves.In ash, basswood and cottonwood there was no significant differencebetween size of shoot apices of sucker and canopy branches,despite significant differences in lamina size. In the suckerbranches of all species studied there occurred an early, lateralexpansion of the subapical region of the shoot apical meristem.This correlated well with the greater diameter of stem and pithregions of sucker branches. In addition, the season's annualring of xylem was greater in basswood, cottonwood and elm. Diametersof vessel elements were greater in sucker than canopy branchesin three of the four species. Total branch and internode andnumber of nodes per branch were significantly greater for suckerbranches than canopy growth of all species studied. A hypothesis is proposed to explain the development of the verylarge surface area of leaves on sucker branches. This hypothesisis based on the position of sucker branches in relation to theroot system and involves differences in water stress known tobe present in all plants.Copyright 1993, 1999 Academic Press Sucker leaves, canopy leaves, Fraxìnus pennsylvanica Marsh, green ash, Ulmus amerìcana L., American elm, Populus deltoides Marsh, cottonwood, Tilia americana, basswood