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1.
Antipsychotic drugs have various neuropharmacological properties as a result of their structural diversity. Despite their therapeutic benefits, most of the prescribed atypical antipsychotics can induce severe side effects, including weight gain, type II diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases. Among the developed atypical antipsychotic agents, tetracyclic dibenzodiazepine and thienobenzodiazepine compounds, particularly clozapine and olanzapine, are associated with the greatest weight gain and metabolic disturbances. However, the unique chemical structure of these compounds causes the low risk of side effects reported for typical antipsychotics (e.g. extrapyramidal symptoms and tardive dyskinesia). This report reviews the recent discovery of the potential role of the chemical structure of antipsychotics in their therapeutic properties and metabolic disturbances. By developing structure-activity relationship studies for atypical antipsychotics, we will improve our understanding of the structural modifications of these chemical classes that lead to reduced weight gain, which will be an invaluable step toward the discovery of the next generation of atypical antipsychotics. In this review, we suggest that a novel dibenzodiazepine or thienobenzodiazepine antipsychotic drug with lower affinity for H(1) receptors may significantly advance schizophrenia therapy.  相似文献   

2.
Central criteria for the definition of atypical antipsychotics are antipsychotic efficacy and minimal or none extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS). This last criterium is of importance in the differentiation with the traditional antipsychotics. Of the four atypical antipsychotics which are discussed here, clozapine is the most atypical. The best proof is its good efficacy in the treatment of Parkinson psychosis with minimal adverse effects on motor function. Clozapine is the best choice for this indication. At this moment there is not enough evidence available concerning quetiapine. Risperidon and olanzapine give more Dopamine2-occupancy with higher doses and can evoke EPS, but this is still less compared to the traditional antipsychotics. All four atypical drugs cause less tardive dyskinesia. Atypical antipsychotics are not well studied in the treatment of elderly patients with functional psychosis. However the available information and the literature on the treatment of young adults makes it probable that the atypical antipsychotics are at least as effective in the elderly as the traditional antipsychotics. The median daily doses are lower for elderly than for younger patients. Risperidon has been proven effective in the treatment of agressive behaviour in dementia. Atypical antipsychotics have their 'own' adverse effects. Those which have the most impact in the elderly are discussed.  相似文献   

3.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to assess the frequency of persistent drug-induced movement disorders namely, tardive dyskinesia (TD), parkinsonism, akathisia and tardive dystonia in a representative sample of long-stay patients with chronic severe mental illness.

Method

Naturalistic study of 209, mainly white, antipsychotic-treated patients, mostly diagnosed with psychotic disorder. Of this group, the same rater examined 194 patients at least two times over a 4-year period, with a mean follow-up time of 1.1 years, with validated scales for TD, parkinsonism, akathisia, and tardive dystonia.

Results

The frequencies of persistent movement disorders in the sample were 28.4% for TD, 56.2% for parkinsonism, 4.6% for akathisia and 5.7% for tardive dystonia. Two-thirds of the participants displayed at least one type of persistent movement disorder.

Conclusions

Persistent movement disorder continues to be the norm for long-stay patients with chronic mental illness and long-term antipsychotic treatment. Measures are required to remedy this situation.  相似文献   

4.
Tardive dyskinesia is a potentially irreversible syndrome of involuntary hyperkinetic movements that occur in predisposed persons receiving extended neuroleptic (antipsychotic) drug therapy. It is usually characterized by choreoathetoid dyskinesias in the orofacial, limb, and truncal regions, but subtypes of this syndrome may include tardive dystonia and tardive akathisia. Although the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of this disorder are unproven, altered dopaminergic functions will likely play a role in any explanation of it. Tardive dyskinesia develops in 20% of neuroleptic-treated patients, but high-risk groups such as the elderly have substantially higher rates. Risk factors include age, female sex, affective disorders, and probably those without psychotic diagnoses, including patients receiving drugs with antidopaminergic activity for nausea or gastrointestinal dysfunction for extended periods. Total drug exposure is positively correlated with tardive dyskinesia risk. Management strategies include a careful evaluation of both the psychiatric and neurologic states, a broad differential diagnosis, and adjustment of neuroleptic agents to the lowest effective dose that controls psychosis and minimizes motor side effects. No drug therapy is uniformly safe and effective for treating this disorder. A favorable long-term outcome of improvement or resolution correlates with younger age, early detection, lower drug exposure, and duration of follow-up.  相似文献   

5.
The long‐term benefit‐to‐risk ratio of sustained antipsychotic treatment for schizophrenia has recently been questioned. In this paper, we critically examine the literature on the long‐term efficacy and effectiveness of this treatment. We also review the evidence on the undesired effects, the impact on physical morbidity and mortality, as well as the neurobiological correlates of chronic exposure to antipsychotics. Finally, we summarize factors that affect the risk‐benefit ratio. There is consistent evidence supporting the efficacy of antipsychotics in the short term and mid term following stabilization of acute psychotic symptoms. There is insufficient evidence supporting the notion that this effect changes in the long term. Most, but not all, of the long‐term cohort studies find a decrease in efficacy during chronic treatment with antipsychotics. However, these results are inconclusive, given the extensive risk of bias, including increasing non‐adherence. On the other hand, long‐term studies based on national registries, which have lower risk of bias, find an advantage in terms of effectiveness during sustained antipsychotic treatment. Sustained antipsychotic treatment has been also consistently associated with lower mortality in people with schizophrenia compared to no antipsychotic treatment. Nevertheless, chronic antipsychotic use is associated with metabolic disturbance and tardive dyskinesia. The latter is the clearest undesired clinical consequence of brain functioning as a potential result of chronic antipsychotic exposure, likely from dopaminergic hypersensitivity, without otherwise clear evidence of other irreversible neurobiological changes. Adjunctive psychosocial interventions seem critical for achieving recovery. However, overall, the current literature does not support the safe reduction of antipsychotic dosages by 50% or more in stabilized individuals receiving adjunctive psychosocial interventions. In conclusion, the critical appraisal of the literature indicates that, although chronic antipsychotic use can be associated with undesirable neurologic and metabolic side effects, the evidence supporting its long‐term efficacy and effectiveness, including impact on life expectancy, outweighs the evidence against this practice, overall indicating a favorable benefit‐to‐risk ratio. However, the finding that a minority of individuals diagnosed initially with schizophrenia appear to be relapse free for long periods, despite absence of sustained antipsychotic treatment, calls for further research on patient‐level predictors of positive outcomes in people with an initial psychotic presentation.  相似文献   

6.
People with severe mental illness have a considerably shorter lifespan than the general population. This excess mortality is mainly due to physical illness. Next to mental illness‐related factors, unhealthy lifestyle, and disparities in health care access and utilization, psychotropic medications can contribute to the risk of physical morbidity and mortality. We systematically reviewed the effects of antipsychotics, antidepressants and mood stabilizers on physical health outcomes in people with schizophrenia, depression and bipolar disorder. Updating and expanding our prior systematic review published in this journal, we searched MEDLINE (November 2009 ‐ November 2014), combining the MeSH terms of major physical disease categories (and/or relevant diseases within these categories) with schizophrenia, major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, and the three major psychotropic classes which received regulatory approval for these disorders, i.e., antipsychotics, antidepressants and mood stabilizers. We gave precedence to results from (systematic) reviews and meta‐analyses wherever possible. Antipsychotics, and to a more restricted degree antidepressants and mood stabilizers, are associated with an increased risk for several physical diseases, including obesity, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders, hyponatremia; cardiovascular, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal, haematological, musculoskeletal and renal diseases, as well as movement and seizure disorders. Higher dosages, polypharmacy, and treatment of vulnerable (e.g., old or young) individuals are associated with greater absolute (elderly) and relative (youth) risk for most of these physical diseases. To what degree medication‐specific and patient‐specific risk factors interact, and how adverse outcomes can be minimized, allowing patients to derive maximum benefits from these medications, requires adequate clinical attention and further research.  相似文献   

7.

Objective

Four types of antipsychotic-induced movement disorders: tardive dyskinesia (TD), parkinsonism, akathisia and tardive dystonia, subtypes of TD (orofacial and limb truncal dyskinesia), subtypes of parkinsonism (rest tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia), as well as a principal-factor of the movement disorders and their subtypes, were examined for association with variation in 7 candidate genes (GRIN2B, GRIN2A, HSPG2, DRD3, DRD4, HTR2C, and NQO1).

Methods

Naturalistic study of 168 white long-stay patients with chronic mental illness requiring long-term antipsychotic treatment, examined by the same rater at least two times over a 4-year period, with a mean follow-up time of 1.1 years, with validated scales for TD, parkinsonism, akathisia, and tardive dystonia. The authors genotyped 45 tag SNPs in 7 candidate genes, associated with movement disorders or schizophrenia in previous studies. Genotype and allele frequency comparisons were performed with multiple regression methods for continuous movement disorders.

Results

Various tag SNPs reached nominal significance; TD with rs1345423, rs7192557, rs1650420, as well as rs11644461; orofacial dyskinesia with rs7192557, rs1650420, as well as rs4911871; limb truncal dyskinesia with rs1345423, rs7192557, rs1650420, as well as rs11866328; bradykinesia with rs2192970; akathisia with rs324035; and the principal-factor with rs10772715. After controlling for multiple testing, no significant results remained.

Conclusions

The findings suggest that selected tag SNPs are not associated with a susceptibility to movement disorders. However, as the sample size was small and previous studies show inconsistent results, definite conclusions cannot be made. Replication is needed in larger study samples, preferably in longitudinal studies which take the fluctuating course of movement disorders and gene-environment interactions into account.  相似文献   

8.
M. V. Seeman 《CMAJ》1981,125(8):821-826
Neuroleptic drugs reduce the severity and prevent the recurrence of symptoms of schizophrenia. Recent studies indicate that these drugs probably produce their antipsychotic effects by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, although they also block acetylcholine and norepinephrine receptors. The potency of commercially available neuroleptics in blocking dopamine receptors varies widely, being related to the compound''s lipid solubility. Neuroleptics predispose the patient to short-term and long-term medical hazards that must be weighed against the benefits of reduced symptom intensity, shortened psychotic episodes and lessened likelihood of recurrence of acute schizophrenic epidoses. The side effects associated with short-term therapy are either extremely rare or are treatable by dose change, medication change or the use of additional drugs. In long-term therapy the risks are more problematic in that they are sometimes irreversible. These include tardive dyskinesia, skin discoloration and corneal deposits. The clinician must consider the pattern aand severity of each patient''s present and past psychotic episodes before deciding whether maintenance therapy with neuroleptics is justified. If it is, doses should be re-evaluated frequently and kept as low as possible. Concomitant administration of anticholinergic agents should be avoided if possible. Most important, the long-term administration of neuroleptics should be prescribed only for patients with schizophrenia and not for those with conditions that respond to other treatments.  相似文献   

9.
Antipsychotic drugs are tranquilizing psychiatric medications primarily used in the treatment of schizophrenia and similar severe mental disorders. So far, most of these drugs have been discovered without knowing much on the molecular mechanisms of their actions. The available large amount of pharmacogenetics, pharmacometabolomics, and pharmacoproteomics data for many drugs makes it possible to systematically explore the molecular mechanisms underlying drug actions. In this study, we applied a unique network-based approach to investigate antipsychotic drugs and their targets. We first retrieved 43 antipsychotic drugs, 42 unique target genes, and 46 adverse drug interactions from the DrugBank database and then generated a drug-gene network and a drug-drug interaction network. Through drug-gene network analysis, we found that seven atypical antipsychotic drugs tended to form two clusters that could be defined by drugs with different target receptor profiles. In the drug-drug interaction network, we found that three drugs (zuclopenthixol, ziprasidone, and thiothixene) tended to have more adverse drug interactions than others, while clozapine had fewer adverse drug interactions. This investigation indicated that these antipsychotics might have different molecular mechanisms underlying the drug actions. This pilot network-assisted investigation of antipsychotics demonstrates that network-based analysis is useful for uncovering the molecular actions of antipsychotics.  相似文献   

10.
Aims and methods It is now well established that antipsychotic medications are associated with adverse effects such as metabolic dysfunction, hyperprolactinaemia and cardiac arrhythmias. We completed an audit cycle between 2008 and 2010 to assess whether the implementation of a high-visibility prompt and an educational programme would improve monitoring rates among patients prescribed regular antipsychotics admitted to a 59-bedded psychiatric hospital in West Sussex.Results There was an improvement in monitoring rates for most audit standards. The greatest improvement was seen in measurement of random plasma glucose and cholesterol levels. Rates improved irrespective of the risk of metabolic dysfunction. However, prolactin measurement remained static and the ECG recording deteriorated.Clinical implications There appears to be a growing awareness of the need to screen for metabolic dysfunction among patients prescribed regular antipsychotic medication. A high-visibility prompt and educational programme helps to increase monitoring rates. However, more needs to be done to improve the mortality and morbidity rates among this patient subpopulation.  相似文献   

11.
Mental disorders frequently begin in childhood or adolescence. Psychotropic medications have various indications for the treatment of mental dis­orders in this age group and are used not infrequently off‐label. However, the adverse effects of these medications require special attention during developmentally sensitive periods of life. For this meta‐review, we systematically searched network meta‐analyses and meta‐analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs), individual RCTs, and cohort studies reporting on 78 a priori selected adverse events across 19 categories of 80 psychotropic medications – including antidepressants, antipsychotics, anti‐attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medications and mood stabilizers – in children and adolescents with mental disorders. We included data from nine network meta‐analyses, 39 meta‐analyses, 90 individual RCTs, and eight cohort studies, including 337,686 children and adolescents. Data on ≥20% of the 78 adverse events were available for six antidepressants (sertraline, escitalopram, paroxetine, fluoxetine, venlafaxine and vilazodone), eight antipsychotics (risperidone, quetiapine, aripiprazole, lurasidone, paliperidone, ziprasidone, olanzapine and asenapine), three anti‐ADHD medications (methylphenidate, atomoxetine and guanfacine), and two mood stabilizers (valproate and lithium). Among these medications with data on ≥20% of the 78 adverse events, a safer profile emerged for escitalopram and fluoxetine among antidepressants, lurasidone for antipsychotics, methylphenidate among anti‐ADHD medications, and lithium among mood stabilizers. The available literature raised most concerns about the safety of venlafaxine, olanzapine, atomoxetine, guanfacine and valproate. Nausea/vomiting and discontinuation due to adverse event were most frequently associated with antidepressants; sedation, extrapyramidal side effects, and weight gain with antipsychotics; anorexia and insomnia with anti‐ADHD medications; sedation and weight gain with mood stabilizers. The results of this comprehensive and updated quantitative systematic meta‐review of top‐tier evidence regarding the safety of antidepressants, antipsychotics, anti‐ADHD medications and mood stabilizers in children and adolescents can inform clinical practice, research and treatment guidelines.  相似文献   

12.
Antimuscarinic agents are the treatment of choice for overactive bladder syndrome; clinical experience and the literature support their efficacy, tolerability, and safety. The most common side effects experienced include dry mouth and constipation. Many commonly prescribed drugs have anticholinergic effects that could increase the anticholinergic "load" or "burden" in patients with overactive bladder, potentially increasing the frequency and severity of side effects. In addition, the adverse events associated with antimuscarinics may be more pronounced in the elderly, especially those taking multiple medications. Knowledge regarding the potential side effects associated with antimuscarinics is important so that patients can be advised and effectively treated.  相似文献   

13.
14.
In contrast to dopaminergic hypersensitivity induced by most neuroleptic drugs including fluphenazine, thioridazine induced hyposensitivity to subsequent apomorphine stereotypy in rats. The difference between thioridazine and fluphenazine may relate in part to anticholinergic properties of thioridazine, but appears to involve additional mechanisms. Differences in dopaminergic sensitization may be important to the management and prevention of tardive dyskinesia an iatrogenic disorder associated with chronic exposure to neuroleptics.  相似文献   

15.
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its components are highly predictive of cardiovascular diseases. The primary aim of this systematic review and meta‐analysis was to assess the prevalence of MetS and its components in people with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder, comparing subjects with different disorders and taking into account demographic variables and psychotropic medication use. The secondary aim was to compare the MetS prevalence in persons with any of the selected disorders versus matched general population controls. The pooled MetS prevalence in people with severe mental illness was 32.6% (95% CI: 30.8%‐34.4%; N = 198; n = 52,678). Relative risk meta‐analyses established that there was no significant difference in MetS prevalence in studies directly comparing schizophrenia versus bipolar disorder, and in those directly comparing bipolar disorder versus major depressive disorder. Only two studies directly compared people with schizophrenia and major depressive disorder, precluding meta‐analytic calculations. Older age and a higher body mass index were significant moderators in the final demographic regression model (z = ?3.6, p = 0.0003, r2 = 0.19). People treated with all individual antipsychotic medications had a significantly (p<0.001) higher MetS risk compared to antipsychotic‐naïve participants. MetS risk was significantly higher with clozapine and olanzapine (except vs. clozapine) than other antipsychotics, and significantly lower with aripiprazole than other antipsychotics (except vs. amisulpride). Compared with matched general population controls, people with severe mental illness had a significantly increased risk for MetS (RR = 1.58; 95% CI: 1.35‐1.86; p<0.001) and all its components, except for hypertension (p = 0.07). These data suggest that the risk for MetS is similarly elevated in the diagnostic subgroups of severe mental illness. Routine screening and multidisciplinary management of medical and behavioral conditions is needed in these patients. Risks of individual antipsychotics should be considered when making treatment choices.  相似文献   

16.
Introduction of the antipsychotics of the second generation (SGA) into the therapy of schizophrenia roused expectations that, finally, the cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia could be eliminated by psychopharmacological therapy. The purpose of the study was to verify the effect of atypical antipsychotic risperidone on cognitive functions in schizophrenic patients. The study was carried out upon 48 male schizophrenic patients aged 21-47 years who were switched from the antipsychotics of the first generation (FGA) to the antipsychotic risperidone, due to intolerance, during the treatment. Intelligence, abstract and concrete thinking and mental speed, attention, and short-term non-verbal memory prior to the switch, one month after the switch, and three months after the switch to risperidone, were evaluated. One month after the switch the number of subjects with severe impairment of intellectual abilities decreased significantly from 62% to 15% and after three months the number was even lower-8%. The impairment of concrete and abstract thinking and mental speed also showed the same tendencies of decrease. The improvement of the cognitive functioning after the switch from the antipsychotics of the first generation to the antipsychotic risperidone is explained by removal of the antipsychotics of the first generation from the therapy and the consequential disinhibition of secondary cognitive impairments and by decreased average dose of anticholinergic and decreased number of patients who need anticholinergic therapy beside risperidone. The possibility of clear pro-cognitive effect of risperidone is suggested and its verification is proposed with strict control of other factors that improve cognitive functioning of schizophrenic patients during the treatment.  相似文献   

17.

Background

Psychiatric patients often require chronic treatment with antipsychotic drugs, and while rats are frequently used to study antipsychotic-induced metabolic adverse effects, long-term exposure has only partially mimicked the appetite-stimulating and weight-inducing effects found in the clinical setting. Antipsychotic-induced effects on serum lipids are also inconsistent in rats, but in a recent study we demonstrated that subchronic treatment with the orexigenic antipsychotic olanzapine resulted in weight-independent increase in serum triglycerides and activation of lipogenic gene expression in female rats. In addition, a recent long-term study in male rats showed that chronic treatment with antipsychotic drugs induced dyslipidemic effects, despite the lack of weight gain.

Aims

In the current study, we sought to examine long-term effects of antipsychotic drugs on weight gain, lipid levels and lipid composition after twice-daily administration of antipsychotics to female rats, and to investigate potential beneficial effects of the lipid-lowering agent tetradecylthioacetic acid (TTA), a modified fatty acid.

Methods

Female rats were exposed to orexigenic antipsychotics (olanzapine or clozapine), metabolically neutral antipsychotics (aripiprazole or ziprasidone), or TTA for 8 weeks. Separate groups received a combination of clozapine and TTA or olanzapine and TTA. The effects of TTA and the combination of olanzapine and TTA after 2 weeks were also investigated.

Results

The antipsychotic-induced weight gain and serum triglyceride increase observed in the subchronic setting was not present after 8 weeks of treatment with antipsychotics, while lipid-lowering effect of TTA was much more pronounced in the chronic than in the subchronic setting, with concomitant upregulation of key oxidative enzymes in the liver. Unexpectedly, TTA potentiated weight gain in rats treated with antipsychotics.

Conclusion

TTA is a promising candidate for prophylactic treatment of antipsychotic-induced dyslipidemic effects, but a more valid long-term rat model for antipsychotic-induced metabolic adverse effects is required.  相似文献   

18.
Loss of mitochondrial membrane integrity and consequent release of apoptogenic factors may be involved in mediating striatal neurodegeneration after prolonged treatment with the typical antipsychotic drug haloperidol. Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), an intramitochondrial protein, may have a large influence on mediating haloperidol-induced striatal neuron destruction. Translocation of this protein from mitochondria to the nucleus promotes cell death independently of the caspase cascade. To examine how AIF may contribute to haloperidol-induced apoptosis, AIF translocation was observed in three haloperidol treatment paradigms. SH-SY5Y cells were treated with both haloperidol and clozapine and examined for AIF immunofluorescence. Immunohistochemistry was also performed on human striatal sections obtained from the Stanley Foundation Neuropathology Consortium and on rat brain sections following 28 days of antipsychotic drug treatment. In the cellular model haloperidol, but not clozapine treatment increased the nuclear AIF immunofluorescent signal and decreased cell viability. Corollary to these findings, striatal sections from patients who had taken haloperidol and rats who were administered haloperidol both had an elevated nuclear AIF signal. The results provide novel evidence implicating the involvement of AIF in haloperidol-associated apoptosis and its relevance to the development of typical antipsychotic drug-related adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia.  相似文献   

19.

Background

Elderly adults should avoid medications with anticholinergic effects since they may increase the risk of adverse events, including falls, delirium, and cognitive impairment. However, data on anticholinergic burden are limited in subpopulations, such as individuals with Parkinson disease (PD). The objective of this study was to determine whether anticholinergic burden was associated with adverse outcomes in a PD inpatient population.

Methods

Using the Cerner Health Facts® database, we retrospectively examined anticholinergic medication use, diagnoses, and hospital revisits within a cohort of 16,302 PD inpatients admitted to a Cerner hospital between 2000 and 2011. Anticholinergic burden was computed using the Anticholinergic Risk Scale (ARS). Primary outcomes were associations between ARS score and diagnosis of fracture and delirium. Secondary outcomes included associations between ARS score and 30-day hospital revisits.

Results

Many individuals (57.8%) were prescribed non-PD medications with moderate to very strong anticholinergic potential. Individuals with the greatest ARS score (≥4) were more likely to be diagnosed with fractures (adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 1.56, 95% CI: 1.29–1.88) and delirium (AOR: 1.61, 95% CI: 1.08–2.40) relative to those with no anticholinergic burden. Similarly, inpatients with the greatest ARS score were more likely to visit the emergency department (adjusted hazard ratio (AHR): 1.32, 95% CI: 1.10–1.58) and be readmitted (AHR: 1.16, 95% CI: 1.01–1.33) within 30-days of discharge.

Conclusions

We found a positive association between increased anticholinergic burden and adverse outcomes among individuals with PD. Additional pharmacovigilance studies are needed to better understand risks associated with anticholinergic medication use in PD.  相似文献   

20.
Alterations in GABAergic neurotransmission are implicated in several psychiatric illnesses, including schizophrenia. The Na-K-Cl and K-Cl cotransporters regulate intracellular chloride levels. Abnormalities in cotransporter expression levels could shift the chloride electrochemical gradient and impair GABAergic transmission. In this study, we performed Western blot analysis to investigate whether the Na-K-Cl and K-Cl cotransporter protein is abnormally expressed in the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex in patients with schizophrenia versus a control group. We found decreased K-Cl cotransporter protein expression in the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, but not the anterior cingulate cortex, in subjects with schizophrenia, supporting the hypothesis of region level abnormal GABAergic function in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Subjects with schizophrenia off antipsychotic medication at the time of death had decreased K-Cl cotransporter protein expression compared to both normal controls and subjects with schizophrenia on antipsychotics. Our results provide evidence for KCC2 protein abnormalities in schizophrenia and suggest that antipsychotic medications might reverse deficits of this protein in the illness.  相似文献   

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