Genetic divergence and evolutionary relationships in six species of genera Hoplobatrachus and Euphlyctis (Amphibia: Anura) from Bangladesh and other Asian countries revealed by mitochondrial gene sequences

To elucidate the species composition, genetic divergence, evolutionary relationships, and divergence time of Hoplobatrachus and Euphlyctis frogs (subfamily Dicroglossinae, family Ranidae) in Bangladesh and other Asian countries, we analyzed the mitochondrial Cyt b, 12S, and 16S rRNA genes of 252 specimens. Our phylogenetic analyses showed 13 major clades corresponding to several cryptic species as well as to nominal species in the two genera. The results suggested monophyly of Asian Hoplobatrachus species, but the position of African Hoplobatrachus occipitalis was not clarified. Nucleotide divergence and phylogenetic data suggested the presence of allopatric cryptic species allied to Euphlyctis hexadactylus in Sundarban, Bangladesh and several parapatric cryptic species in the Western Ghats, India. The presence of at least two allopatric cryptic species among diverged Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis in Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka was also suggested. In some cases, our estimated divergence times matched the paleogeological events of South and Southeast Asian regions that may have led to the divergence of Hoplobatrachus and Euphlyctis taxa. Especially, land formation at Bangladesh (15–10 Ma) may have allowed the spread of these frog taxa to Southeast Asian areas, and the aridification of central India (5.1–1.6 Ma) might have affected the gene flow of widely distributed species. The present study revealed prior underestimation of the richness of the amphibian fauna in this region, indicating the possible occurrence of many cryptic species among these groups.     

Molecular phylogeny of the subfamily Schizothoracinae (Teleostei: Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) inferred from complete mitochondrial genomes

The schizothoracine fishes, members of the Teleost order Cypriniformes, are one of the most diverse group of cyprinids in the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau and surrounding regions. However, taxonomy and phylogeny of these species remain unclear. In this study, we determined the complete mitochondrial genome of Schizopygopsis malacanthus. We also used the newly obtained sequence, together with 31 published schizothoracine mitochondrial genomes that represent eight schizothoracine genera and six outgroup taxa to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships of the subfamily Schizothoracinae by different partitioned maximum likelihood and partitioned Bayesian inference at nucleotide and amino acid levels. The schizothoracine fishes sampled form a strongly supported monophyletic group that is the sister taxon to Barbus barbus. A sister group relationship between the primitive schizothoracine group and the specialized schizothoracine group + the highly specialized schizothoracine group was supported. Moreover, members of the specialized schizothoracine group and the genera Schizothorax, Schizopygopsis, and Gymnocypris were found to be paraphyletic.     

Historical biogeography of the hyperdiverse hidden snout weevils (Coleoptera,Curculionidae, Cryptorhynchinae)

The first dated phylogeny of the weevil subfamily Cryptorhynchinae is presented within a framework of Curculionoidea. The inferred pattern and timing of weevil family relationships are generally congruent with previous studies, but our data are the first to suggest a highly supported sister-group relationship between Attelabidae and Belidae. Our biogeographical inferences suggest that Cryptorhynchinae s.s. originated in the Late Cretaceous (c. 86 Ma) in South America. Within the ‘Acalles group’ and the ‘Cryptorhynchus group’, several independent dispersal events to the Western Palaearctic via the Nearctic occurred in the Late Cretaceous and Early Paleogene. A second southern route via Antarctica may have facilitated the colonization of Australia in the Late Cretaceous (c. 82 Ma), where a diverse Indo-Australian clade probably emerged c. 73 Ma. In the Early Eocene (c. 50–55 Ma), several clades independently dispersed from Australia to proto-New Guinea, i.e. the tribe Arachnopodini s.l., the ‘Rhynchodes group’ and the genus Trigonopterus. New Zealand was first colonized in the Late Palaeocene (c. 60 Ma). Divergence time estimations and biogeographical reconstructions indicate that the colonization of New Guinea is older than expected from current geological reconstructions of the region.     

Characterization of the host-defense peptides from skin secretions of Merlin's clawed frog Pseudhymenochirus merlini: Insights into phylogenetic relationships among the Pipidae

The family Pipidae comprises the genera Hymenochirus, Pipa, Pseudhymenochirus, Silurana, and Xenopus but phylogenetic relationships within the family are unclear. Peptidomic analysis of norepinephrine-stimulated skin secretions from Pseudhymenochirus merlini Chabanaud, 1920, the single species within the genus Pseudhymenochirus, led to identification of 13 host-defense peptides with antimicrobial activity. Two peptides (hymenochirin-1Pa and -1Pb) show structural similarity to hymenochirin-1B from Hymenochirus boettgeri and eight peptides (hymenochirin-5Pa, -5Pb, -5Pc, -5Pd, -5Pe, -5Pf, 5Pg and -5Ph) are structurally similar to each other and to hymenochirin-5B from H. boettgeri. Two peptides differing by a single amino acid (IKIPSFFRNILKKVGKEAVSLM/I AGALKQS), termed pseudhymenochirin-1Pa and -1Pb, and pseudhymenochirin-2Pa (GIFPIFAKLLGKVIKVASSLISKGRTE) do not resemble host-defense peptides previously isolated from pipid frogs. Hymenochirin-5Pe was the most abundant peptide in the secretions and hymenochirin-1Pa the most potent against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC = 2.5 μM) and Escherichia coli (MIC = 10 μM). The data support a close phylogenetic relationship between Hymenochirus and Pseudhymenochirus that is distinct from the Xenopodinae (Xenopus + Silurana) clade with Pipa sister-group to all other extant pipids.     

The sister-group relationships of the largest family of lichenized fungi,Parmeliaceae (Lecanorales, Ascomycota)

Parmeliaceae is the largest family of lichen-forming fungi. In spite of its importance for fungal diversity, its relationships with other families in Lecanorales remain poorly known. To better understand the evolutionary history of the diversification of lineages and species richness in Parmeliaceae it is important to know the phylogenetic relationships of the closest relatives of the family. A recent study based on two molecular loci suggested that either Protoparmelia s. str. or a group consisting of Gypsoplaca and Protoparmelia s. str. were the possible sister-group candidates of Parmeliaceae, but that study could not distinguish between these two alternatives. Here, we used a four-locus phylogeny (nuLSU, ITS, RPB1, MCM7) to reveal relationships of Parmeliaceae with other potential relatives in Lecanorales. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses showed that Protoparmelia is polyphyletic, with Protoparmelia s. str. (including Protoparmelia badia and Protoparmelia picea) being most closely related to Parmeliaceae s. str., while the Protoparmelia atriseda-group formed the sister-group to Miriquidica. Gypsoplaca formed the sister-group to the Parmeliaceae s. str. + Protoparmelia s. str. clade. Monophyly of Protoparmelia as currently circumscribed, and Gypsoplaca as sister-group to Parmeliaceae s. str. were both significantly rejected by alternative hypothesis testing.     

New adapiform primate of Old World affinities from the Devil's Graveyard Formation of Texas

Most adapiform primates from North America are members of an endemic radiation of notharctines. North American notharctines flourished during the Early and early Middle Eocene, with only two genera persisting into the late Middle Eocene. Here we describe a new genus of adapiform primate from the Devil’s Graveyard Formation of Texas. Mescalerolemur horneri, gen. et sp. nov., is known only from the late Middle Eocene (Uintan) Purple Bench locality. Phylogenetic analyses reveal that Mescalerolemur is more closely related to Eurasian and African adapiforms than to North American notharctines. In this respect, M. horneri is similar to its sister taxon Mahgarita stevensi from the late Duchesnean of the Devil’s Graveyard Formation. The presence of both genera in the Big Bend region of Texas after notharctines had become locally extinct provides further evidence of faunal interchange between North America and East Asia during the middle Eocene. The fact that Mescalerolemur and Mahgarita are both unknown outside of Texas also supports prior hypotheses that low-latitude faunal assemblages in North America demonstrate increased endemism by the late middle Eocene.     

Tortoise (Reptilia,Testudinidae) radiations in Southern Africa from the Eocene to the present

Africa, inclusive of the West Indian Ocean islands, harbours 11 of the world's 16 extant testudinid genera. Fossil records indicate that testudinids originated in Asia and dispersed first to North America and Europe (Early Eocene) and later to Africa (Late Eocene). We used mitochondrial (1870 bp) and nuclear (1416 bp) DNA sequence data to assess whether molecular data support the late cladogenesis of Southern African testudinid lineages. Our results revealed strong support for the monophyly of a clade consisting of Kinixys, the two Malagasy genera and four Southern African genera (Psammobates, Stigmochelys, Homopus and Chersina). Kinixys diverged from this clade in the Late Palaeocene, suggesting that testudinids occupied Africa at an earlier date than indicated by fossil records. The Southern African tortoises consist of three, strongly supported clades: Psammobates + Stigmochelys; the five‐toed Homopus + Chersina; and the four‐toed Homopus. Due to the paraphyly of Homopus, we propose the taxonomic resurrection of Chersobius for the five‐toed Homopus species (boulengeri, signatus and solus). Cladogenesis at the genus level occurred mainly in the Eocene, with Chersina and Chersobius diverging in the Oligocene. The latter divergence coincided with species‐level radiations within Homopus (areolatus and femoralis) and Psammobates (oculifer, geometricus and tentorius). Our phylogeny could not resolve relationships within Psammobates, indicating rapid speciation between the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene. The Chersobius species were the last to diverge in the Early to Mid‐Miocene. By the Mid‐Miocene, P. tentorius started to differentiate into four lineages instead of the three recognized subspecies: P. t. tentorius, P. t. trimeni and two P. t. verroxii subclades occurring north and south of the Orange River, respectively. Terminal radiations in several taxa suggest the existence of cryptic species and a more diverse tortoise fauna than currently recognized. Factors contributing to this diversity may include the early origin of African testudinids and climatic fluctuations over a heterogeneous landscape.     

Dissecting the major American snake radiation: A molecular phylogeny of the Dipsadidae Bonaparte (Serpentes,Caenophidia)

The Dipsadidae contains more than 700 extant species belonging to 92 genera and is the largest family of American snakes. In this work, we built a data set including two mitochondrial genes (12S and 16S rRNA) for 125 dipsadid taxa belonging to 59 genera, in order to gain further insights on the phylogenetic relationships of this large group at the subfamilial and generic levels. Among dipsadines, the monotypic genus Nothopsis is the sister-group to Leptodeira. Among xenodontines, the monophyly of seven previously recognized tribes (Alsophiini, Elapomorphini, Hydropsini, Philodryadini, Pseudoboini, Tachymenini and Xenodontini) is confirmed. Among Xenodontini, the genus Liophis is paraphyletic with respect to Erythrolamprus and Umbrivaga and workers should be aware of the inadequacy of the current taxonomy. Finally, the following genera could not confidently be allocated to the above tribes: Caaeteboia, Echinantera and Taeniophallus, Tropidodryas, Manolepis and Pseudalsophis, Xenopholis, Psomophis, Hydrodynastes, Conophis and Crisantophis.     

Taxonomic review of the “Bulimes”, terrestrial gastropods from the continental Eocene of the Hamada de Méridja (northwestern Sahara,Algeria) (Mollusca: Stylommatophora: Strophocheilidae?), with a discussion of the genera of the family Vidaliellidae

Terrestrial gastropods occur in many North African localities in Eocene continental deposits. Here we analyse the faunal assemblage from the Hamada de Méridja Formation in southwestern Algeria, dated as Early to Middle Eocene on the basis of charophytes. The assemblage consists of three closely related species that to date have been classified either in the extant Madagascan genus Leucotaenius v. Martens, 1860, or in the SW European Eocene genera Romanella Jodot, 1957 and Vicentinia Jodot, 1957. This is rejected for shell morphological and phylogeographical reasons, and a new classification as Maghrebiola gen. nov. is proposed. Maghrebiola is tentatively placed in the South American family Strophocheilidae, as species from the Early Eocene Itaboraí Basin of Brazil, currently placed in the genus Eoborus Klappenbach and Olazarri, 1970 in the family Strophocheilidae, superfamily Acavoidea, have a very similar shell habitus. This record possibly extends the known geographical range of the Strophocheilidae into the African continent during the Eocene. Immigration of this stock into North Africa during the Cretaceous via a still existing plate connection is assumed. An attribution of Maghrebiola to the African family Achatinidae is unlikely for shell morphological reasons despite certain habitus similarities, although the Priabonian genera Arabicolaria and Pacaudiella from Oman most likely belong into this family, and not to the Vidaliellidae as originally proposed. Possible causes for the very low diversity of the assemblage are mainly unfavourable living conditions, i.e. a relatively dry climate resulting in sparse vegetation and only occasional presence of water bodies, which may have had increased salinities, accounting for the lack of freshwater mollusks. The absence of any competing large gastropods may possibly have facilitated high intraspecific variability leading to sympatric occurrence of three closely related species, due to the animals occupying a wide range of available ecological niches. As the species discussed here have also been attributed to the genera Romanella and Vicentinia in the Vidaliellidae, we provide an appendix with annotated characterisations of most genera of the Vidaliellidae and list the nominal species assigned to them. This family is tentatively placed in the South American superfamily Orthalicoidea; its stock would have similarly immigrated from South America, but have successfully colonized mainly SW Europe, with only one Eocene species [Romanella kantarensis (Jodot, 1936)] recognized in Algeria.     

Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of Malagasy frogs of the genus Gephyromantis

The genus Gephyromantis is a clade within the Malagasy-Comoroan family Mantellidae composed of rainforest frogs that live and breed to varying degrees independently from water. Based on DNA sequences of five mitochondrial and five nuclear genes we inferred the phylogeny of these frogs with full taxon coverage at the species level. Our preferred consensus tree from a partitioned Bayesian analysis of 5843 base pairs of 51 nominal and candidate species supports various major clades within the genus although the basal relationships among these remain unresolved. The data provide strong evidence for the monophyly of the subgenera Gephyromantis (after exclusion of Gephyromantis klemmeri), Laurentomantis, Vatomantis, and Phylacomantis. Species assigned to the subgenus Duboimantis belong to two strongly supported clades of uncertain relationships. G. klemmeri, previously in the subgenus Gephyromantis, was placed with high support sister to the Laurentomantis clade, and the Laurentomantis + G. klemmeri clade was sister to Vatomantis. A reconstruction of ancestral distribution areas indicates a diversification of several subgenera in the northern biogeographic regions of Madagascar and the dispersal out of northern Madagascar for several clades.     

Phylogeny of the Asian spiny frog tribe Paini (Family Dicroglossidae) sensu Dubois

The anuran tribe Paini, family Dicroglossidae, is known in this group only from Asia. The phylogenetic relationships and often the taxonomic recognition of species are controversial. In order to stabilize the classification, we used approximately 2100 bp of nuclear (rhodopsin, tyrosinase) and mitochondrial (12S, 16S rRNA) DNA sequence data to infer the phylogenetic relationships of these frogs. Phylogenetic trees reconstructed using Bayesian inference and maximum parsimony methods supported a monophyletic tribe Paini. Two distinct groups (I,II) were recovered with the mtDNA alone and the total concatenated data (mtDNA+nuDNA). The recognition of two genera, Quasipaa and Nanorana, was supported. Group I, Quasipaa, is widespread east of the Hengduan Mountain Ranges and consists of taxa from relatively low elevations in southern China, Vietnam and Laos. Group II, Nanorana, contains a mix of species occurring from high to low elevation predominantly in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and Hengduan Mountain Ranges. The occurrence of frogs at high elevations appears to be a derived ecological condition. The composition of some major species groups based on morphological characteristics strongly conflicts with the molecular analysis. Some possible cryptic species are indicated by the molecular analyses. The incorporation of genetic data from type localities helped to resolve some of the taxonomic problems, although further combined analyses of morphological data from type specimens are required. The two nuDNA gene segments proved to be very informative for resolving higher phylogenetic relationships and more nuclear data should be explored to be more confident in the relationships.     

Phylogenetic systematics and biogeography of the poison frogs: evidence from mitochondrial DNA sequences

Regions of the mitochondrial genome were sequenced and analysed in representative species of poison frogs, in order to investigate phylogenetic relationships within the family Dendrobatidae. Mitochondrial DNA (mfDNA) fragments from three gene regions; cytochrome b, 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and 12S rRNA, provided 1198 base pairs of DNA sequence and 589 informative sites. Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony was used to infer the evolutionary relationships among the species in the survey. Our analysis supported previous partitions of species into the genera Epipedobates, Phyllobates and Dendrobates , with two exceptions; Epipedobates (Allobates) femoralis was placed outside the clade containing the other toxic dendrobatids, and Minyobates minutus was placed within the genus Dendrobates. Genetic distances estimated between all pairs of taxa using the Kimura 2-parameter model indicated substantial genetic divergence between species, particularly those found in Amazonia. Time of divergence estimates were highly variable depending on gene region, but even the lowest estimates were inconsistent with the Pleistocene Refugia hypothesis.     

TERTIARY SPECIATION MODELS IN AUSTRALIAN ANURANS: MOLECULAR DATA CHALLENGE PLEISTOCENE SCENARIO

Similarities between frogs in the faunas of southwestern and southeastern Australia have long been viewed as indicators of close genetic relationships and recent (Pleistocene) divergences. We studied albumin evolution in 16 east-west species pairs of frogs representing six genera to assess the validity of these conclusions. Analysis of albumin evolution in western species of Heleioporus and some species of Litoria suggested recent speciation in these genera, with the closest sister groups occurring in the western and not among the eastern fauna. All divergences measured between eastern and western cognate species point to a Tertiary separation extending from the late Miocene to the early Oligocene. Micro-complement fixation studies provide an independent estimation of both genetic relationships between species pairs and the time of divergence of each species pair, allowing the testing of models of speciation and vicariance biogeography in a way not possible with earlier methodologies.     

Anatomy and phylogenetic analysis of the neotropical callichthyid catfishes (Ostariophysi, Siluriformes)

Based mainly on morphological characters, the phylogenetic relationships among genera and some species groups of the neotropical family Callichthyidae were examined. A study of the osteology of a generalized callichthyid, Callichthys callichthys (Linnaeus), with detailed comparisons among representatives of the remaining genera in the family, is presented and used as a basis for the phylogenetic analysis. A single most parsimonious tree supported the monophyly of the family Callichthyidae based on 28 derived features and the division of the family in the subfamilies Corydoradinae and Callichthyinae. In the subfamily Corydoradinae, the genus Aspidoras is the sister-group of the clade formed by Corydoras plus Brochis. Five derived features support the monophyly of this clade and four support the monophyly of Brochis. No characters, however, were found to support the genus Corydoras. In the subfamily Callichthyinae, Dianema and Hopbstemum are sister-taxa. Megalechis represents the sister-group of Dianema plus Hoplosternum and Lepthoplosternum represents the sister-group to Megalechis plus Dianema plus Hopbstemum. Finally, Callichthys is considered the least derived member of the subfamily, and is hypothesized as the sister-group of the remaining species. A key to all callichthyid genera is provided.     

The geologic history of the Lythraceae

The known fossil record of the Lythraceae has been amplified by recent studies in northern Latin America. A total of 18 genera is recognized in geologic strata ranging in age from lower Eocene to Recent, and among the 22 or 23 modern genera, seven have a documented geologic history. The oldest remains are from an Indo-Malayan Old World warm-temperate to subtropical vegetation preserved in the lower Eocene London Clay flora. The most ancient of extant genera isLagerstroemia and the most recent (among those with an adequate fossil record) isCuphea (middle Miocene to Recent). These represent, respectively, primitive and advanced members of the family, and the paleobotanical record supports current concepts concerning phylogenetic relationships among genera of the Lythraceae. The family apparently had an Old World origin and became differentiated into a distinct modern taxon during Paleocene and early Eocene time.     

A new species of Neochelys (Chelonii,Podocnemididae) from the Ypresian (Early Eocene) of the South of France

The known European record of the Gondwanan group Podocnemididae begins in the Early Eocene. Neochelys underwent a rapid diversification and was an abundant and diverse representative of this group during the Eocene of Europe from the Early Ypresian to at least the Bartonian. However, several of its species are poorly known, and the phylogenetic relationships among them are poorly understood. A complete shell from the Ypresian of Hérault (southern France) is described here. It is assigned to a new species, Neochelys liriae. The availability of characters of N. liriae is tested by comparison with the other European species, which appear to be well differentiated, and particularly with the neighbouring French taxa N. eocaenica and N. laurenti, of which the latter has been little known to this point.     

Remarkable phylogenetic resolution of the most complex clade of Cyprinidae (Teleostei: Cypriniformes): A proof of concept of homology assessment and partitioning sequence data integrated with mixed model Bayesian analyses

Despite many efforts to resolve evolutionary relationships among major clades of Cyprinidae, some nodes have been especially problematic and remain unresolved. In this study, we employ four nuclear gene fragments (3.3 kb) to infer interrelationships of the Cyprinidae.A reconstruction of the phylogenetic relationships within the family using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian analyses is presented. Among the taxa within the monophyletic Cyprinidae, Rasborinae is the basal-most lineage; Cyprinine is sister to Leuciscine. The monophyly for the subfamilies Gobioninae, Leuciscinae and Acheilognathinae were resolved with high nodal support. Although our results do not completely resolve relationships within Cyprinidae, this study presents novel and significant findings having major implications for a highly diverse and enigmatic clade of East-Asian cyprinids. Within this monophyletic group five closely-related subgroups are identified. Tinca tinca, one of the most phylogenetically enigmatic genera in the family, is strongly supported as having evolutionary affinities with this East-Asian clade; an established yet remarkable association because of the natural variation in phenotypes and generalized ecological niches occupied by these taxa.Our results clearly argue that the choice of partitioning strategies has significant impacts on the phylogenetic reconstructions, especially when multiple genes are being considered. The most highly partitioned model (partitioned by codon positions within genes) extracts the strongest phylogenetic signals and performs better than any other partitioning schemes supported by the strongest 2Δln Bayes factor. Future studies should include higher levels of taxon sampling and partitioned, model-based analyses.     

Evolution of pipoid frogs:intergeneric relationships of the aquatic frog family Pipidae (Anura)

The 27 species of the aquatic frog family Pipidae are currently arranged in four genera: Xenopus (15 species), Hymenochirus (four species), and the poorly known genus Pseudhymenochirus (one species) occur in Africa; Pipa (seven species) is found in South America and lower Central America. Despite extensive work on the biology of Xenopus from various disciplines, the evolutionary relationships of Xenopus to other pipids have not been resolved. Phylogenetic analyis of morphological features of pipid frogs indicates that, contrary to earlier opinions, Hymenochirus and Pipa are closest relatives (sister-groups); these genera are placed in the subfamily Pipinae. Also, the currently recognized species of Xenopus do not form a natural group; the species tropicalis and epitropicalis are more closely related to Hymenochirus + Pipa than to the remaining species of Xenopus . The two discordant species are transferred to the genus Silurana , which is relegated to the new subfamily Siluraninae; it is the sister-group of the Pipinae. The remaining species of Xenopus constitute a monophyletic group that is placed in the subfamily Xenopodinae as the sister-group of the other genera of pipids.     

Uncovering cryptic diversity in Aspidomorphus (Serpentes: Elapidae): Evidence from mitochondrial and nuclear markers

The Papuan region, comprising New Guinea and nearby islands, has a complex geological history that has fostered high levels of biodiversity and endemism. Unfortunately, much of this diversity remains undocumented. We examine the evolutionary relationships of the venomous snake genus Aspidomorphus (Elapidae: Hydrophiinae), a Papuan endemic, and document extensive cryptic lineage diversification. Between Aspidomorphus species we find 22.2–27.9% corrected cyt-b sequence divergence. Within species we find 17.7–23.7% maximum sequence divergence. These high levels of genetic divergence may have complicated previous phylogenetic studies, which have had difficulty placing Aspidomorphus within the subfamily Hydrophiinae. Compared to previous studies, we increase sampling within Hydrophiinae to include all currently recognized species of Aspidomorphus and increase species representation for the genera Demansia and Toxicocalamus. We confirm monophyly of Aspidomorphus and resolve placement of the genus utilizing a set of seven molecular markers (12S, 16S, cyt-b, ND4, c-mos, MyHC-2, and RAG-1); we find strong support for a sister-group relationship between Aspidomorphus and a Demansia/Toxicocalamus preussi clade. We also use one mitochondrial (cyt-b) and one nuclear marker (SPTBN1) to document deep genetic divergence within all currently recognized species of Aspidomorphus and discuss the Solomon Island Arc as a potential center of divergence in this species. Lastly, we find high levels of concordance between the mtDNA and nuDNA markers used for inter-species phylogenetic reconstruction.     

The first complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Nanorana parkeri and Nanorana ventripunctata (Amphibia: Anura: Dicroglossidae), with related phylogenetic analyses

Members of the Nanorana genus (family Dicroglossidae) are often referred to as excellent model species with which to study amphibian adaptations to extreme environments and also as excellent keystone taxa for providing insights into the evolution of the Dicroglossidae. However, a complete mitochondrial genome is currently only available for Nanorana pleskei. Thus, we analyzed the complete mitochondrial genomes of Nanorana parkeri and Nanorana ventripunctata to investigate their evolutionary relationships within Nanorana and their phylogenetic position in the family Dicroglossidae. Our results showed that the genomes of N. parkeri (17,837 bp) and N. ventripunctata (18,373 bp) encode 13 protein‐coding genes (PCGs), two ribosomal RNA genes, 23 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and a noncoding control region. Overall sequences and genome structure of the two species showed high degree of similarity with N. pleskei, although the motif structures and repeat sequences of the putative control region showed clear differences among these three Nanorana species. In addition, a tandem repeat of the tRNA‐Met gene was found located between the tRNA‐Gln and ND2 genes. On both the 5′ and 3′‐sides, the control region possessed distinct repeat regions; however, the CSB‐2 motif was not found in N. pleskei. Based on the nucleotide sequences of 13 PCGs, our phylogenetic analyses, using Bayesian inference and maximum‐likelihood methods, illustrate the taxonomic status of Nanorana with robust support showing that N. ventripunctata and N. pleskei are more closely related than they are to N. parkeri. In conclusion, our analyses provide a more robust and reliable perspective on the evolutionary history of Dicroglossidae than earlier analyses, which used only a single species (N. pleskei).