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1.
Aim Maps of species richness are the basis for applied research and conservation planning as well as for theoretical research investigating patterns of richness and the processes shaping these patterns. The method used to create a richness map could influence the results of such studies, but differences between these methods have been insufficiently evaluated. We investigate how different methods of mapping species ranges can influence patterns of richness, at three spatial resolutions.
Location California, USA.
Methods We created richness maps by overlaying individual species range maps for terrestrial amphibians and reptiles. The methods we used to create ranges included: point-to-grid maps, obtained by overlaying point observations of species occurrences with a grid and determining presence or absence for each cell; expert-drawn maps; and maps obtained through species distribution modelling. We also used a hybrid method that incorporated data from all three methods. We assessed the correlation and similarity of the spatial patterns of richness maps created with each of these four methods at three different resolutions.
Results Richness maps created with different methods were more correlated at lower spatial resolutions than at higher resolutions. At all resolutions, point-to-grid richness maps estimated the lowest species richness and those derived from species distribution models the highest. Expert-drawn maps and hybrid maps showed intermediate levels of richness but had different spatial patterns of species richness from those derived with the other methods.
Main conclusions Even in relatively well-studied areas such as California, different data sources can lead to rather dissimilar maps of species richness. Evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of different methods for creating a richness map can provide guidance for selecting the approach that is most appropriate for a given application and region. 相似文献
Location California, USA.
Methods We created richness maps by overlaying individual species range maps for terrestrial amphibians and reptiles. The methods we used to create ranges included: point-to-grid maps, obtained by overlaying point observations of species occurrences with a grid and determining presence or absence for each cell; expert-drawn maps; and maps obtained through species distribution modelling. We also used a hybrid method that incorporated data from all three methods. We assessed the correlation and similarity of the spatial patterns of richness maps created with each of these four methods at three different resolutions.
Results Richness maps created with different methods were more correlated at lower spatial resolutions than at higher resolutions. At all resolutions, point-to-grid richness maps estimated the lowest species richness and those derived from species distribution models the highest. Expert-drawn maps and hybrid maps showed intermediate levels of richness but had different spatial patterns of species richness from those derived with the other methods.
Main conclusions Even in relatively well-studied areas such as California, different data sources can lead to rather dissimilar maps of species richness. Evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of different methods for creating a richness map can provide guidance for selecting the approach that is most appropriate for a given application and region. 相似文献
2.
Species richness patterns are characterized either by overlaying species range maps or by compiling geographically extensive survey data for multiple local communities. Although, these two approaches are clearly related, they need not produce identical richness patterns because species do not occur everywhere in their geographical range. Using North American breeding birds, we present the first continent‐wide comparison of survey and range map data. On average, bird species were detected on 40.5% of the surveys within their range. As a result of this range porosity, the geographical richness patterns differed markedly, with the greatest disparity in arid regions and at higher elevations. Environmental productivity was a stronger predictor of survey richness, while elevational heterogeneity was more important in determining range map richness. In addition, range map richness exhibited greater spatial autocorrelation and lower estimates of spatial turnover in species composition. Our results highlight the fact that range map richness represents species coexistence at a much coarser scale than survey data, and demonstrate that the conclusions drawn from species richness studies may depend on the data type used for analyses. 相似文献
3.
Relationships between spatial patterns of bird and mammal species richness in north‐eastern Mexico were analysed in relation to the location of three biosphere reserves (El Abra‐Tanchipa, El Cielo, and Sierra Gorda) and 13 priority areas recently identified for conservation. Ecological niches were modelled and potential distributions delimited for 285 bird and 114 mammal species using a genetic algorithm based on locality information from museum specimens and 15 selected environmental attributes. Potential distributions were transformed into hypothesized current distributions based on species–habitat associations as reflected in a recent land‐use map. Although species richness was lower when distributions were reduced from potential to current, spatial patterns of potential and current richness were similar. Heuristic, complementarity‐based prioritization procedures were used to identify combinations of areas and sites with maximal species representation: the biosphere reserves included 79% of birds and 74% of mammal species; eight priority areas provided an additional 11% of birds and 13% of mammals; the remaining 10% of birds and 13% of mammals were concentrated in new sites across the study area. 相似文献
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Wilfried Thuiller Laura J. Pollock Maya Gueguen Tamara Münkemüller 《Ecology letters》2015,18(12):1321-1328
The extent that biotic interactions and dispersal influence species ranges and diversity patterns across scales remains an open question. Answering this question requires framing an analysis on the frontier between species distribution modelling (SDM), which ignores biotic interactions and dispersal limitation, and community ecology, which provides specific predictions on community and meta‐community structure and resulting diversity patterns such as species richness and functional diversity. Using both empirical and simulated datasets, we tested whether predicted occurrences from fine‐resolution SDMs provide good estimates of community structure and diversity patterns at resolutions ranging from a resolution typical of studies within reserves (250 m) to that typical of a regional biodiversity study (5 km). For both datasets, we show that the imprint of biotic interactions and dispersal limitation quickly vanishes when spatial resolution is reduced, which demonstrates the value of SDMs for tracking the imprint of community assembly processes across scales. 相似文献
6.
Although we understand how species evolve, we do not appreciate how this process has filled an empty world to create current patterns of biodiversity. Here, we conduct a numerical experiment to determine why biodiversity varies spatially on our planet. We show that spatial patterns of biodiversity are mathematically constrained and arise from the interaction between the species’ ecological niches and environmental variability that propagates to the community level. Our results allow us to explain key biological observations such as (a) latitudinal biodiversity gradients (LBGs) and especially why oceanic LBGs primarily peak at midlatitudes while terrestrial LBGs generally exhibit a maximum at the equator, (b) the greater biodiversity on land even though life first evolved in the sea, (c) the greater species richness at the seabed than at the sea surface, and (d) the higher neritic (i.e., species occurring in areas with a bathymetry lower than 200 m) than oceanic (i.e., species occurring in areas with a bathymetry higher than 200 m) biodiversity. Our results suggest that a mathematical constraint originating from a fundamental ecological interaction, that is, the niche–environment interaction, fixes the number of species that can establish regionally by speciation or migration. 相似文献
7.
Giles M. Foody 《Global Ecology and Biogeography》2004,13(4):315-320
Aim This article aims to test for and explore spatial nonstationarity in the relationship between avian species richness and a set of explanatory variables to further the understanding of species diversity variation. Location Sub‐Saharan Africa. Methods Geographically weighted regression was used to study the relationship between species richness of the endemic avifauna of sub‐Saharan Africa and a set of perceived environmental determinants, comprising the variables of temperature, precipitation and normalized difference vegetation index. Results The relationships between species richness and the explanatory variables were found to be significantly spatially variable and scale‐dependent. At local scales > 90% of the variation was explained, but this declined at coarser scales, with the greatest sensitivity to scale variation evident for narrow ranging species. The complex spatial pattern in regression model parameter estimates also gave rise to a spatial variation in scale effects. Main conclusions Relationships between environmental variables are generally assumed to be spatially stationary and conventional, global, regression techniques are therefore used in their modelling. This assumption was not satisfied in this study, with the relationships varying significantly in space. In such circumstances the average impression provided by a global model may not accurately represent conditions locally. Spatial nonstationarity in the relationship has important implications, especially for studies of species diversity patterns and their scaling. 相似文献
8.
Aim
There is a wealth of information on species occurrences in biodiversity data banks, albeit presence‐only, biased and scarce at fine resolutions. Moreover, fine‐resolution species maps are required in biodiversity conservation. New techniques for dealing with this kind of data have been reported to perform well. These fine‐resolution maps would be more robust if they could explain data at coarser resolutions at which species distributions are well represented. We present a new methodology for testing this hypothesis and apply it to invasive alien species (IAS).Location
Catalonia, Spain.Methods
We used species presence records from the Biodiversity data bank of Catalonia to model the distribution of ten IAS which, according to some recent studies, achieve their maximum distribution in the study area. To overcome problems inherent with the data, we prepared different correction treatments: three for dealing with bias and five for autocorrelation. We used the MaxEnt algorithm to generate models at 1‐km resolution for each species and treatment. Acceptable models were upscaled to 10 km and validated against independent 10 km occurrence data.Results
Of a total of 150 models, 20 gave acceptable results at 1‐km resolution and 12 passed the cross‐scale validation test. No apparent pattern emerged, which could serve as a guide on modelling. Only four species gave models that also explained the distribution at the coarser scale.Main conclusions
Although some techniques may apparently deliver good distribution maps for species with scarce and biased data, they need to be taken with caution. When good independent data at a coarser scale are available, cross‐scale validation can help to produce more reliable and robust maps. When no independent data are available for validation, however, new data gathering field surveys may be the only option if reliable fine‐scale resolution maps are needed. 相似文献9.
The geographic distribution of plant species is already being affected by climate change. Cropping patterns of edible plant species and their wild relatives will also be affected, making it important to predict possible changes to their distributions in the future. Currently, species distribution models are valuable tools that allow the estimation of species’ potential distributions, in the recent past as well as during other time spans for which climate data have been obtained. With the aim of evaluating how species distributions respond to current and future climate changes, in this work species distribution models were generated for two cultivated species of the Porophyllum genus (Asteraceae), known commonly as ‘pápalos' or ‘pápaloquelites', as well as their Mexican wild relatives, at five points in time (21,000 years ago, present, 2020, 2050, and 2080). Using a database of 1442 entries for 16 species of Porophyllum and 19 environmental variables, species distribution models were constructed for each time period using the Maxent modelling algorithm; those constructed for the future used a severe climate change scenario. The results demonstrate contrasting effects between the two cultivated species; for P. linaria, the future scenario suggests a decrease in distribution area, while for P. macrocephalum distribution is predicted to increase. Similar trends are observed in their wild relatives, where 11 species will tend to decrease in distribution area, while three are predicted to increase. It is concluded that the most important agricultural areas where the cultivated species are grown will not be greatly affected, while the areas inhabited by the wild species will. However, while the results suggest that climate change will affect the distribution of the cultivated species in contrasting ways, evaluations at finer scales are recommended to clarify the impact within cultivation zones. 相似文献
10.
Hai-Bao Ren Shu-Kui Niu Lin-Yan Zhang Ke-Ping Ma 《植物学报(英文版)》2006,48(2):153-160
Quantifying spatial patterns of species richness and determining the processes that give rise to these patterns are core problems In blodlveralty theory. The aim of the present paper was to more accurately detect patterns of vascular species richness at different scales along altitudinal gradients in order to further our understanding of biodlverslty patterns and to facilitate studies on relationships between biodiversity and environmental factors. Species richness patterns of total vascular plants species, including trees, shrubs, and herbs, were measured along an altitudinal gradient on one transect on a shady slope in the Dongling Mountains, near Beijing,China. Direct gradient analysis, regression analysis, and geostatistics were applied to describe the spatial patterns of species richness. We found that total vascular species richness did not exhibit a linear pattern of change with altitude, although species groups with different ecological features showed strong elevational patterns different from total species richness. In addition to total vascular plants, analysis of trees, shrubs, and herbs demonstrated remarkable hierarchical structures of species richness with altitude (i.e. patchy structures at small scales and gradients at large scales). Species richness for trees and shrubs had similar spatial characteristics at different scales, but differed from herbs. These results indicated that species groups with similar ecological features exhibit similar biodlveraity patterns with altitude, and studies of biodiversity based on species groups with similar ecological properties or life forms would advance our understanding of variations in species diversity. Furthermore, the gradients or trends appeared to be due mainly to local variations in species richness means with altitude. We also found that the range of spatial scale dependencies of species richness for total vascular plants, trees, shrubs, and herbs was relatively large. Thus, to detect the relationships betweenspecies richness with environmental factors along altitudinal gradients, it was necessary to quantify the scale dependencies of environmental factors in the sampling design or when establishing non-linear models. 相似文献
11.
Linda Harris Eileen E. Campbell Ronel Nel David Schoeman 《Diversity & distributions》2014,20(10):1120-1135
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Aim To develop an approach for assessing the spatial scale of centres of endemism among species level data.
Location Australia.
Methods Endemism is inherently scale dependent. Therefore, the Corrected Weighted Endemism (CWE) index used by Crisp et al. [ J. Biogeogr. (2001)28:183] is extended to account for species samples in local neighbourhoods as a Spatial CWE index. This then allows an analysis of how the degree of endemism of a location (cell) changes with spatial scale. The quality of the Spatial CWE index results are assessed using three spatial randomizations at the species level with and without preserving species richness and distributional patterns. We show that CWE is equivalent to beta diversity and predict that it should show high rates of change around centres of endemism.
Results Similar patterns to those found by Crisp et al. using a data set of vascular flora from Australia are retrieved, but the extent to which they are scale dependent is more easily identified. For example, the Central Australian centre discounted by Crisp et al. is identified when a three-cell radius neighbourhood is used. However, the level of endemism in this centre is no greater than in the margins of many of the coastal centres of endemism. Most of the identified centres of endemism are better than random at all scales and are increasingly so as the spatial scale increases. As predicted, the highest rate of change in Spatial CWE (beta diversity) is most often between zero- and one-cell radius neighbours in most centres of endemism.
Main conclusions The explicit incorporation of geographical space in analyses allows for a greater understanding of the scale-dependence of phenomena, in this case endemism and beta diversity. 相似文献
Location Australia.
Methods Endemism is inherently scale dependent. Therefore, the Corrected Weighted Endemism (CWE) index used by Crisp et al. [ J. Biogeogr. (2001)28:183] is extended to account for species samples in local neighbourhoods as a Spatial CWE index. This then allows an analysis of how the degree of endemism of a location (cell) changes with spatial scale. The quality of the Spatial CWE index results are assessed using three spatial randomizations at the species level with and without preserving species richness and distributional patterns. We show that CWE is equivalent to beta diversity and predict that it should show high rates of change around centres of endemism.
Results Similar patterns to those found by Crisp et al. using a data set of vascular flora from Australia are retrieved, but the extent to which they are scale dependent is more easily identified. For example, the Central Australian centre discounted by Crisp et al. is identified when a three-cell radius neighbourhood is used. However, the level of endemism in this centre is no greater than in the margins of many of the coastal centres of endemism. Most of the identified centres of endemism are better than random at all scales and are increasingly so as the spatial scale increases. As predicted, the highest rate of change in Spatial CWE (beta diversity) is most often between zero- and one-cell radius neighbours in most centres of endemism.
Main conclusions The explicit incorporation of geographical space in analyses allows for a greater understanding of the scale-dependence of phenomena, in this case endemism and beta diversity. 相似文献
14.
中国北方典型草地物种丰富度与生产力的关系 总被引：13，自引：0，他引：13
利用2002–2004年内蒙古和甘肃南部几种典型草地的实测资料,研究了不同尺度物种丰富度与生产力的关系,并初步探讨了其形成机制。结果显示,温带草地的物种丰富度随生产力的增加而增加,但受空间尺度影响。在群落尺度(同一群落),在7种样方数大于15的群落中,仅沙生针茅(Stipaglareosa)群落物种丰富度与生产力呈现单峰型关系,其余均呈现线性正相关关系;在植被类型尺度,物种丰富度–生产力之间表现为显著的正相关关系;在研究区尺度,物种丰富度随生产力的增加而显著增加。研究还表明,研究区群落生产力的变化范围为13–368g·m–2·yr–1,物种丰富度为4–35种;生产力从高到低的顺序为:高寒草甸>草甸草原>典型草原>荒漠草原。 相似文献
15.
John J. Wiens Jeet Sukumaran R. Alexander Pyron Rafe M. Brown 《Evolution; international journal of organic evolution》2009,63(5):1217-1231
Differences in species richness between regions are ultimately explained by patterns of speciation, extinction, and biogeographic dispersal. Yet, few studies have considered the role of all three processes in generating the high biodiversity of tropical regions. A recent study of a speciose group of predominately New World frogs (Hylidae) showed that their low diversity in temperate regions was associated with relatively recent colonization of these regions, rather than latitudinal differences in diversification rates (rates of speciation–extinction). Here, we perform parallel analyses on the most species-rich group of Old World frogs (Ranidae; ∼1300 species) to determine if similar processes drive the latitudinal diversity gradient. We estimate a time-calibrated phylogeny for 390 ranid species and use this phylogeny to analyze patterns of biogeography and diversification rates. As in hylids, we find a strong relationship between the timing of colonization of each region and its current diversity, with recent colonization of temperate regions from tropical regions. Diversification rates are similar in tropical and temperate clades, suggesting that neither accelerated tropical speciation rates nor greater temperate extinction rates explain high tropical diversity in this group. Instead, these results show the importance of historical biogeography in explaining high species richness in both the New World and Old World tropics. 相似文献
16.
Recent null models that place species ranges randomly within a bounded domain have produced controversial results. Many such geometric constraint models predict a peak in species richness in the centre of domains in the absence of underlying environmental gradients or interspecific interactions. We used two-dimensional simulation models to explore different ways that species ranges could interact with the domain boundary. In the rejection model, a randomly generated range that overlaps a domain boundary is removed from the simulation. In the reshaping model, a range that overlaps the domain boundary is reshaped so that the entire range is placed within the domain. The truncation model allows potential ranges to extend across the boundary, but only that portion of the range within the domain is included in the realized range. Both rejection and reshaping models produced a drop in species richness near domain boundaries, though the effect was less pronounced in the reshaping model. Our truncation model did not produce any spatial pattern in species richness. Thus the random placement of species ranges within a bounded domain does not necessarily lead to a mid-domain effect.
Range truncation is consistent with bioclimate envelope models, which can successfully predict a species range in response to the availability of appropriate climate conditions. We argue that such flexible range sizes are more realistic than the assumption that range size is an unvarying characteristic of a species. Other range characteristics, including size and shape, can change near domain boundaries in the null models, including the truncation model. A broader consideration of range characteristics near domain boundaries could be productive. 相似文献
Range truncation is consistent with bioclimate envelope models, which can successfully predict a species range in response to the availability of appropriate climate conditions. We argue that such flexible range sizes are more realistic than the assumption that range size is an unvarying characteristic of a species. Other range characteristics, including size and shape, can change near domain boundaries in the null models, including the truncation model. A broader consideration of range characteristics near domain boundaries could be productive. 相似文献
17.
Aim Humans have dramatically transformed landscapes along the US–Mexico border. We aim to assess the risk of barriers that may significantly impede animal migrations within this ecologically sensitive region. Location United States and Mexico. Methods We examined the intersection of current and possible future barriers along the border with the geographic ranges of 313 amphibian, reptile and non‐volant mammal species. We considered the areas of intensive human land use and ～ 600 km of pedestrian fence as current barriers along the border. We evaluated the impacts of two scenarios of dispersal barriers – continuation of existing and construction of new barriers – and identified species vulnerable to global and local extinction. Results Among the species most at risk from current barriers are four species listed as threatened globally or by both nations, 23 species for which the larger of their two national subranges is < 105 km2 and 29 species whose ranges cross the border only marginally. Three border regions, California, Madrean archipelago and Gulf coast, emerge as being of particular concern. These regions are characterized by high overall species richness and high richness of species at risk from existing barriers and from construction of potential new barriers. Main conclusions New barriers along the border would increase the number of species at risk, especially in the three identified regions, which should be prioritized for mitigation of the impacts of current barriers. The species we identified as being potentially at risk merit further study to determine impacts of border dispersal barriers. 相似文献
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Aim Studies exploring the determinants of geographical gradients in the occurrence of species or their traits obtain data by: (1) overlaying species range maps; (2) mapping survey‐based species counts; or (3) superimposing models of individual species’ distributions. These data types have different spatial characteristics. We investigated whether these differences influence conclusions regarding postulated determinants of species richness patterns. Location Our study examined terrestrial bird diversity patterns in 13 nations of southern and eastern Africa, spanning temperate to tropical climates. Methods Four species richness maps were compiled based on range maps, field‐derived bird atlas data, logistic and autologistic distribution models. Ordinary and spatial regression models served to examine how well each of five hypotheses predicted patterns in each map. These hypotheses propose productivity, temperature, the heat–water balance, habitat heterogeneity and climatic stability as the predominant determinants of species richness. Results The four richness maps portrayed broadly similar geographical patterns but, due to the nature of underlying data types, exhibited marked differences in spatial autocorrelation structure. These differences in spatial structure emerged as important in determining which hypothesis appeared most capable of explaining each map's patterns. This was true even when regressions accounted for spurious effects of spatial autocorrelation. Each richness map, therefore, identified a different hypothesis as the most likely cause of broad‐scale gradients in species diversity. Main conclusions Because the ‘true’ spatial structure of species richness patterns remains elusive, firm conclusions regarding their underlying environmental drivers remain difficult. More broadly, our findings suggest that care should be taken to interpret putative determinants of large‐scale ecological gradients in light of the type and spatial characteristics of the underlying data. Indeed, closer scrutiny of these underlying data — here the distributions of individual species — and their environmental associations may offer important insights into the ultimate causes of observed broad‐scale patterns. 相似文献
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K. Matthias B. Herkt Andrew K. Skidmore Jakob Fahr 《Global Ecology and Biogeography》2017,26(8):930-941