Confocal microscopy and plant cell biology: A perfect match

Abstract

The present short introduction to confocal microscopy in plant cell biology is meant to be a reference addressed to those who are approaching these studies. Optical and genetic techniques developed over the last years have revolutionised plant cell biology. They enable in vivo studies of cell organisation, mainly based on the use of confocal microscopy and derivatives of the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). Such fluorescent proteins are extremely useful tools for directly monitoring gene expression and protein localisation, and for selectively labelling sub-cellular structures. GFP-expressing plants can be directly examined by confocal microscopy to obtain high-resolution optical sections of intact tissues and to allow time-lapse observation of dynamic processes. The application of such approaches to the investigation of root cell responses during arbuscular mycorrhizal colonisation is discussed.     

动脉粥样硬化中单核细胞膜流动性研究

为研究动脉粥样硬化中单核细胞膜流动性的变化,本实验选用20只新西兰白兔建立动物粥样硬化模型,提取模型组与对照组兔外周血中单核细胞,通过荧光漂白恢复技术检测单核细胞膜流动性,并结合动脉粥样硬化动物模型病理切片揭示其与动脉粥样硬化相关性。结果显示动物动脉粥样硬化模型建立成功,模型组单核细胞膜的荧光恢复率和扩散系数均低于对照组。本研究揭示了单核细胞细胞膜的流动性与动脉粥样硬化的发生有关,为今后深入探究单核细胞与动脉粥样硬化关系提供实验基础。     

利用激光扫描共聚焦显微镜研究植物细胞发育形态学变化

通过激光扫描共聚焦显微镜,利用不同种类(波长)的激光研究植物细胞发育形态学变化。结果表明,利用紫外激光(351 nm)扫描可以清楚地观察到拟南芥叶片表皮细胞的形态及其变化,在已分化的叶片表皮上可观察到包括“铺垫”表皮细胞(epidermal pavement cells)、气孔保卫细胞(guard cell)、气孔伴胞(subsidiarycells)、表皮毛细胞(trichomes)和表皮毛的足细胞(socket cells)等多种形态不同的细胞种类;利用蓝光激光(488nm)辅助曙红浅染,可清晰地显示出拟南芥根生长区内部的各种原始细胞,包括静止区(quiescent center)细胞、皮层/内皮层原始细胞(cortex/endodermal initial cell)、表皮/根冠原始细胞(epidermal/root cap initial cell)和中柱/根冠原始细胞(columella/root cap initial cell)等。利用双光子激光(800 nm)连续扫描30 s可以诱发叶绿体产生自发荧光,并可观察到叶绿体在叶肉细胞中的运动轨迹。结果说明激光扫描共聚焦显微镜在植物细胞形态及发育研究上具有独特的功能。     

用激光共聚焦扫描技术研究昆虫触角叶的雌雄异构性

【目的】本研究探讨用激光共聚焦扫描显微镜对昆虫触角叶内结构的扫描技术。【方法】选取鳞翅目斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura, 蜚蠊目美洲大蠊Periplaneta americana和鞘翅目松墨天牛Monochamus alternatus, 仔细解剖得到昆虫完整脑组织, 经过Lucifer yellow染色、戊二醛固定、梯度酒精脱水和透明等一系列处理后, 用激光共聚焦扫描显微镜对昆虫触角叶结构进行分层扫描。【结果】结果显示: 经该方法处理后在激发光488 nm下能清晰扫描出昆虫触角内典型结构神经纤维球, 并且可清晰看到这3种昆虫雄性触角叶结构内的扩大型神经纤维球复合体(macroglomerular complex, MGC), 而在相应雌性昆虫体内都没有此复合体。另外通过5 μm分层扫描得到斜纹夜蛾、美洲大蠊和松墨天牛的触角叶平均厚度分别为130, 235和115 μm, 神经纤维球数量分别为35, 59和39个。【结论】激光共聚焦扫描技术是获得昆虫触角叶内部结构的一个可行方法。     

Cardiogel: A biosynthetic extracellular matrix for cardiomyocyte culture

Summary Tissue-cultured neonatal cardiomyocytes can be successfully maintained in culture on a variety of extracellular matrix components such as laminin, fibronectin, and interstitial collagens (Types I and III).In vivo, however, cardiomyocytes (as well as many other cells) exist in a highly complex extracellular matrix environment composed of, in addition to the above three components, other proteins, proteoglycans, and growth factors. We have developed a procedure for culturing cardiomyocytes on a naturally occurring complete extracellular matrix, Cardiogel. This substrate, synthesized by cardiac fibroblasts, contains laminin, fibronectin, Types I and III collagen, and proteoglycans. When compared to cardiomyocytes grown on laminin alone or fibronectin alone, Cardiogel-supported cardiomyocytes adhere more rapidly after plating, exhibit spontaneous contractility earlier, undergo cytoskeletal and myofibrillar differentiation earlier, and grow larger than their counterparts. We suggest that their superior growth characteristics reflect the synergistic effect of numerous extracellular matrix components’ signals in Cardiogel transduced by the cardiomyocyte cytoskeletal elements.     

Comparison of single cell culture derived Solanum tuberosum L. plants and a model for their application in breeding programs

Summary The techniques of microspore and protoplast regeneration starting from dihaploid Solanum tuberosum plants has been improved to such an extent that the production of more than 2000 microspore derived A₁ plant lines and of several hundred protoplast derived plantlets has become possible. Further, from the dihaploid Solanum species S. phureja the regeneration of microspores to plants, and from the species S. infundibuliforme, S. sparsipilum and S. tarijense the regeneration of protoplasts to calluses, has been achieved. The plants descending from the two single cell culture systems are compared with reference to phenotypic markers and economic qualities. Some principles characteristic for either microspore or protoplast derived plants are examined and their significance is discussed. The results are compiled into an extended analytical synthetic breeding scheme based on a stepwise reduction of the autotetraploid to the monohaploid level and a subsequent controlled combination to a new synthetic completely heterozygous tetraploid potato.     

Axially‐confined in vivo single‐cell labeling by primed conversion using blue and red lasers with conventional confocal microscopes

Green‐to‐red photoconvertible fluorescent proteins have been found to undergo efficient photoconversion by a new method termed primed conversion that uses dual wave‐length illumination with blue and red/near‐infrared light. By modifying a confocal laser‐scanning microscope (CLSM) such that two laser beams only meet at the focal plane, confined photoconversion at the axial dimension has been achieved. The necessity of this custom modification to the CLSM, however, has precluded the wide‐spread use of this method. Here, we investigated whether spatially‐restricted primed conversion could be achieved with CLSM without any hardware modification. We found that the primed conversion of Dendra2 using a conventional CLSM with two visible lasers (473 nm and 635 nm) and a high NA objective lens (NA, 1.30) resulted in dramatic restriction of photoconversion volume: half‐width half‐maximum for the axial dimension was below 5 μm, which is comparable to the outcome of the original method that used the microscope modification. As a proof of this method's effectiveness, we used this technique in living zebrafish embryos and succeeded in revealing the complex anatomy of individual neurons packed between neighboring cells. Because unmodified CLSMs are widely available, this method can be widely applicable for labeling cells with single‐cell resolution.     

钙结合蛋白CIB1在293T细胞中的表达及亚细胞定位研究

分析和比对钙结合蛋白CIB1在人类、大鼠、小鼠中氨基酸序列差异,并研究CIB1蛋白在293T细胞中的表达及亚细胞定位情况。通过Western Blot分析发现293T细胞本身几乎检测不到CIB1的表达。进一步采用CIB1外源性质粒转染,通过免疫荧光分析实验,在激光共聚焦显微镜下观察转染后不同时间293T细胞中CIB1的表达情况及亚细胞定位变化。实验结果表明,随着转染时间的增加,CIB1在293T细胞中的表达有逐渐增强的趋势,并且发生从细胞核向细胞质的转位现象。该实验结果对了解CIB1亚细胞定位变化及功能研究具有重要参考价值。     

用共聚焦激光扫描显微镜观测GFP标记的内生固氮菌Klebsiella oxytoca SA2侵染水稻根

用高效绿色荧光蛋白（green fluorescent protein,GFP）突变体EGFPmut2的基因标记内生固氮菌－－产酸克雷伯氏菌（Klebsiella axytoca (Fluegge)Lautrop）SA2,用标记菌接种限菌培养条件下生长的水稻（Oryza sativa L.）幼苗,在接种后1、2、4 、8、12、16和21d,用共聚焦激光扫描显微镜对水稻鲜根进行光学切片,显示了标记菌从水稻根成熟区表面向根内入侵的过程。定殖在根表面的标记菌主要从侧根伸出的位置侵入侧根皮层,从邻近发生侧根的位置进入内皮层和维管柱。SA2还能从初生根成熟区无侧根伸出的位置侵入皮层向维管柱迁移。SA2入侵水稻根引发了水稻根局部的过敏反应以阻滞细菌地下海主侵,表现为侵入根内的细菌周围的根细胞细胞壁变厚,在蓝光下发出很强的黄绿荧光。     

A new approach for the spatially resolved qualitative analysis of the protein distribution in hydrogel beads based on confocal laser scanning microscopy

To investigate the spatial distribution of white egg albumin (WEA) in alginate beads, a new method based on confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was developed. In contrast to the existing CLSM methods, misleading conclusions are prevented with the application of the new method which does not allow the attenuation of the exciting and emitted light by the opaque hydrogel matrices to be disregarded. By the application of this method, the distribution of WEA in alginate beads was shown to be dependent on the amount of protein loading. At low quantities of protein, a higher protein concentration occurs in the shell layer of the alginate bead while at higher loadings a more or less homogeneous distribution is observed.     

细胞内F-actin的聚合与解聚对肝癌Bel-7402细胞的影响

目的：为探讨癌细胞内F—actin的解聚与聚合对癌细胞的形态、迁移、侵入的影响。方法：利用激光共聚焦显微镜对贴附培养的人肝癌：Bel-7402细胞形态及其细胞内F-actin进行观察;使用流式细胞仪对贴附的Bel一7402细胞及其脱落细胞与Cyt—B处理后Bel-7402细胞内F-actin的含量进行分析。结果：Bel-7402细胞在培养的过程中,癌细胞形态伸展,出现侵入性生长,细胞内F-actin聚合形成粗大的贯通细胞内的F-actin束,F-acfin含量增高;癌细胞在生长过程中,常出现重叠生长,细胞变圆,F_actin解聚变短,F-acfin小体增高,细胞有脱落的趋势,其脱落细胞内的F-actin含量低于贴附细胞。结论：人肝癌：Bel-7402细胞内F-actin的聚合可增加癌细胞的贴附和侵入性：细胞内F-actin的解聚,及Gactin重新聚合形成F-aefin小体可影响到癌细胞脱落及迁移。     

激光扫描共聚焦显微镜在植物学中的应用

激光扫描共聚焦显微镜(LSCM)是普通光学显微镜与激光和计算机及其相应的软件技术组合的产物,实现了连续光学切片,能在亚细胞水平观察细胞骨架的动态变化、细胞内特异蛋白、钙等离子的变化,并结合电生理等技术观察细胞生理活动与细胞形态及运动变化的相互关系。并广泛应用于生物三维结构重组及动态分析。本文综述了应用激光扫描共聚焦显微镜技术在植物细胞学、植物发育、组织化学以及基因表达、检测等领域取得的进展。     

Vibrational spectroscopic imaging and live cell video microscopy for studying differentiation of primary human alveolar epithelial cells

Alveolar type II (ATII) cells in the peripheral human lung spontaneously differentiate toward ATI cells, thus enabling air‐blood barrier formation. Here, linear Raman and coherent anti‐Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy are applied to study cell differentiation of freshly isolated ATII cells. The Raman spectra can successfully be correlated with gradual morphological and molecular changes during cell differentiation. Alveolar surfactant rich vesicles in ATII cells are identified based on phospholipid vibrations, while ATI‐like cells are characterized by the absence of vesicular structures. Complementary, CARS microscopy allows for three‐dimensional visualization of lipid vesicles within ATII cells and their secretion, while hyperspectral CARS enables the distinction between cellular proteins and lipids according to their vibrational signatures. This study paves the path for further label‐free investigations of lung cells and the role of the pulmonary surfactant, thus also providing a basis for rational development of future lung therapeutics.      

Simplified Equation to Extract Diffusion Coefficients from Confocal FRAP Data

Quantitative measurements of diffusion can provide important information about how proteins and lipids interact with their environment within the cell and the effective size of the diffusing species. Confocal fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) is one of the most widely accessible approaches to measure protein and lipid diffusion in living cells. However, straightforward approaches to quantify confocal FRAP measurements in terms of absolute diffusion coefficients are currently lacking. Here, we report a simplified equation that can be used to extract diffusion coefficients from confocal FRAP data using the half time of recovery and effective bleach radius for a circular bleach region, and validate this equation for a series of fluorescently labeled soluble and membrane‐bound proteins and lipids. We show that using this approach, diffusion coefficients ranging over three orders of magnitude can be obtained from confocal FRAP measurements performed under standard imaging conditions, highlighting its broad applicability.     

Calcium ions as second messengers in guard cell signal transduction

Ca²⁺ is a ubiquitous second messenger in plant cell signalling. In this review we consider the role of Ca²⁺-based signal transduction in stomatal guard cells focusing on three important areas: (1) the regulation of guard cell turgor relations and the control of gene expression in guard cells, (2) the control of specificity in Ca²⁺ signalling, (3) emerging technologies and new approaches for studying intracellular signalling. Stomatal apertures alter in response to a wide array of environmental stimuli as a result of changes in guard cell turgor. For example, the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) stimulates a reduction in stomatal aperture through a decrease in guard cell turgor. Furthermore, guard cells have been shown to be competent to relay an ABA signal from its site of perception to the nucleus. An increase in the concentration of cytosolic free Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]₁) is central to the mechanisms underlying ABA-induced changes in guard cell turgor. We describe a possible model of Ca²⁺-based ABA signal transduction during stomatal closure and discuss recent evidence which suggests that Ca²⁺ is also involved in ABA nuclear signal transduction. Many other environmental stimuli which affect stomatal apertures, in addition to ABA, induce an increase in guard cell [Ca²⁺]₁) This raises questions regarding how increases in [Ca²⁺]₁) can be a common component in the signal transduction pathways by which stimuli cause both stomatal opening and closure. We discuss several mechanisms of increasing the amount of information contained within the Ca²⁺ signal, including encoding information in a stimulus-specific Ca²⁺ signal or Ca²⁺ signature', the concept of the ‘physiological address’ of the cell, and the use of other second messengers. We conclude by addressing the emerging technologies and new approaches which can be used in conjunction with guard cells to dissect further the molecular mechanisms of Ca²⁺-mediated signalling in plants.     

From hormone signal, via the cytoskeleton, to cell growth in single cells of tobacco

Cultured mesophyll protoplasts of Nicotiana tabacum L. can be hormonally induced into different developmental pathways. In a medium containing auxins (NAA) and cytokinins (BAP) cells divide and eventually give rise to calli. When only auxins are present cells elongate and finally differentiate into very long tubular cells. We focused on the sequence of events leading to elongation. When cultured in a high (1 mg/l) auxin concentration elongating cells seem to pass a certain threshold and increase their nuclear DNA up to about 16C. Cells cultured in a low (0.065 mg/l) auxin concentration only have C-values up to 4C, are unable to pass this threshold and finally fail to elongate. Besides the concentration dependence of the auxin signal, the efflux of auxin seems to be necessary for elongation since addition of TIBA drastically reduces the amount of elongating cells. Concomitant with the changes in nuclear physiology, auxin-induced axiality is seen as sequential rearrangements of microtubules and actin-filaments and of cell wall cellulose microfibrils from 'randomly' arranged in spherical cells to an orientation perpendicular to the long axis of elongating cells.     

Use of confocal microscopy to follow the development of penetrative hyphae during growth of Rhizopus oligosporus in an artificial solid-state fermentation system

Two methods were compared for determining the concentration of penetrative biomass during growth of Rhizopus oligosporus on an artificial solid substrate consisting of an inert gel and starch as the sole source of carbon and energy. The first method was based on the use of a hand microtome to make sections of approximately 0.2- to 0.4-mm thickness parallel to the substrate surface and the determination of the glucosamine content in each slice. Use of glucosamine measurements to estimate biomass concentrations was shown to be problematic due to the large variations in glucosamine content with mycelial age. The second method was a novel method based on the use of confocal scanning laser microscopy to estimate the fractional volume occupied by the biomass. Although it is not simple to translate fractional volumes into dry weights of hyphae due to the lack of experimentally determined conversion factors, measurement of the fractional volumes in themselves is useful for characterizing fungal penetration into the substrate. Growth of penetrative biomass in the artificial model substrate showed two forms of growth with an indistinct mass in the region close to the substrate surface and a few hyphae penetrating perpendicularly to the surface in regions further away from the substrate surface. The biomass profiles against depth obtained from the confocal microscopy showed two linear regions on log-linear plots, which are possibly related to different oxygen availability at different depths within the substrate. Confocal microscopy has the potential to be a powerful tool in the investigation of fungal growth mechanisms in solid-state fermentation.     

Innocuousness and intracellular distribution of PKH67: A fluorescent probe for cell proliferation assessment

PKH dyes were initially developed by Horan et al. to provide appropriate probes for in vitro and in vivo cell tracking. It has been reported for many cell types that PKH bind irreversibly to the cell membrane without significantly affecting cell growth. Thus, these probes provide an opportunity for long-term cell monitoring and the identification of cells of interest among a heterogeneous cell population. An important feature is that upon cell division, the probe is partitioned equally between each daughter cell, making it possible to quantify tell fluorescence by flow cytometry. In this situation. the flow cytometric study of PKH67 characteristics shows that this probe does not affect the main cell-functions such as viability or proliferation. Moreover, the intracellular distribution of PKH67 is demonstrated by following its kinetics of internalization by confocal microscopy. These results present PKH67 as a probe suitable for dynamic analysis of cell proliferation as well as the study of intracellular localization and membrane recycling mechanisms.