Assessment of the Bioaccessibility of Trace Elements in Cat’s Claw Teas by In Vitro Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion Using FAAS

Beer is a widely consumed drink throughout the world, and because its manufacture involves the use of water, beer can be, in some cases, a source of fluorides. For this reason, the objective of this study was to determine the concentration of fluorides in 50 samples of beers from different sources sold in two different types of container (aluminum can and glass bottle). The possible significant differences between the different types of packaging and the intake of fluoride from the consumption of these beers were evaluated. The concentration of fluoride in beers has been determined using the potentiometric method of fluoride determination by standard addition. The concentration of fluoride ranged between 0.06 and 1.77 mg/L. In general, the concentration was below 1 mg/L, except for three beer samples from Ireland and the USA, whose concentration was over 1.5 mg/L. No significant differences were found between the types of packaging. The contribution of fluoride to the diet from beer consumption is not high (<27%); however, it is necessary to warn consumers whenever they are in areas of high concentrations of fluoride in the water supply.     

Enzymatic Activity of Glutathione S-Transferase and Dental Fluorosis Among Children Receiving Two Different Levels of Naturally Fluoridated Water

This study was conducted to measure the activity of the enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST) in saliva and to compare the activity of this enzyme in children with and without dental fluorosis in communities with different concentrations of naturally fluoridated water. A total of 141 schoolchildren participated in this cross-sectional study. Children were selected from two communities: one with a low (0.4 ppm) and the other with a high (1.8 ppm) water fluoride concentration. Dental fluorosis was evaluated by applying the Thylstrup and Fejerskov Index (TFI) criteria. Stimulated saliva was obtained, and fluoride concentration and GST activity were measured. The GST activity was compared among children with different levels of dental fluorosis using multinomial logistic regression models and odds ratios (OR). The mean age of the children was 10.6 (±1.03) years. Approximately half of the children showed dental fluorosis (52.5 %). The average GST activity was 0.5678 (±0.1959) nmol/min/μg. A higher concentration of fluoride in the saliva was detected in children with a higher GST activity (p = 0.039). A multinomial logistic regression model used to evaluate the GST activity and the dental fluorosis score identified a strong association between TFI = 2–3 (OR = 15.44, p = 0.007) and TFI ≥ 4 (OR = 55.40, p = 0.026) and the GST activity level, compared with children showing TFI = 0–1, adjusted for age and sex. Schoolchildren with higher levels of dental fluorosis and a higher fluoride concentration in the saliva showed greater GST activity. The increased GST activity most likely was the result of the body’s need to inactivate free radicals produced by exposure to fluoride.     

Temporal kinetics of fluoride accumulation: from fetal to adult deer

In June 2011, a volcano deposited about 100 million tons of tephra over parts of Chile and over 36 million ha of Argentina. Initially, fluoride was considered irrelevant; however, recently wild deer exhibited strong fluorosis, with fluoride level increasing 38-fold among severely affected deer. Whereas mothers averaged 2,151 ppm, their late-term fetuses had only 19.8 ppm, indicating a barrier to fluoride transport in utero. Levels among four age classes increased significantly, at a rate of about 1,000 ppm/year. The temporal kinetics of accumulation suggests that sources of available fluoride are highly effective. Thus, compared to prior background levels (63 ppm in adults) and to fetuses starting at about 20 ppm, 1-year-old calves averaged 1,035 ppm (maximum 1,830 ppm), 2-year olds averaged 2,151 ppm (maximum 2,513 ppm), and older deer averaged 2,806 ppm (maximum 5,175 ppm). As osteofluorosis occurs in deer with >4,000 ppm, accumulation of 1,000 ppm/year would result in adults reaching levels causing osteopathology in 1–2 years. Importantly, impacts may be further exacerbated by regional iodine and selenium deficiencies. Iodine deficiency may increase incidences of dental fluorosis and severity of damages, while selenium deficiency impacts iodine metabolism. Fluorosis will affect population dynamics, morbidity, predation susceptibility, and other ecosystem components like scavenger and plant communities.     

Effect of Selected Types of Beer on Bacteria of the Genus Arcobacter

The genus Arcobacter is related to the well-known human pathogen, Campylobacter jejuni, and has been linked to human diseases. In this study, the survival of Arcobacter spp. in various concentrations of ethanol, in various samples of beers, and in a model stomach has been investigated. For most of these bacteria, a concentration of 10 % ethanol was determined to be the minimum inhibitory concentration. The fact that these organisms are able to survive under these conditions may have an impact in the food processing industry. We studied the activity of beer against arcobacters. These bacteria were killed in all samples of beer within 30 min. A model stomach, containing a food matrix and a synthetic gastric fluid, was used to deduce the effect of beer against Arcobacter spp. during food consumption. Complete inactivation of all monitored arcobacters was detected usually within 15 min. However, the presence of beer does not potentiate the effect of gastric fluid against these bacteria. This is apparently the first study focusing upon the effect of beer on Arcobacter spp.     

Ambient mass spectrometry employing a DART ion source for metabolomic fingerprinting/profiling: a powerful tool for beer origin recognition

A metabolomic fingerprinting/profiling generated by ambient mass spectrometry (MS) employing a direct analysis in real time (DART) ion source coupled to high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS) was employed as a tool for beer origin recognition. In a first step, the DART–TOFMS instrumental conditions were optimized to obtain the broadest possible representation of ionizable compounds occurring in beer samples (direct measurement, no sample preparation). In the next step, metabolomic profiles (mass spectra) of a large set of different beer brands (Trappist and non-Trappist specialty beers) were acquired. In the final phase, the experimental data were analyzed using partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), and artificial neural networks with multilayer perceptrons (ANN-MLP) with the aim of distinguishing (i) the beers labeled as Rochefort 8; (ii) a group consisting of Rochefort 6, 8, 10 beers; and (iii) Trappist beers. The best prediction ability was obtained for the model that distinguished the group of Rochefort 6, 8, 10 beers from the rest of beers. In this case, all chemometric tools employed provided ≥95% correct classification. The current study showed that DART–TOFMS metabolomic fingerprinting/profiling is a powerful analytical strategy enabling quality monitoring/authenticity assessment to be conducted in real time.     

Spatial distribution and seasonal variation in fluoride enrichment in groundwater and its associated human health risk assessment in Telangana State,South India

Groundwater is a vital source of drinking water in Siddipet rural and urban regions of Central Telangana, South India and it is a major cause of fluoride toxicity in humans. The intake of elevated fluoride has a significant impact on human health, especially immediate problems that are seen in children's teeth. The primary aim of the study was to identify the seasonal variation in fluoride concentration and associated health risks in the residents of the study region. To assess the fluoride contamination in groundwater, a total of 158 samples were analyzed in two seasons. The mean concentrations of fluoride 1.26 mg/L and 2.21 mg/L were 1.46 and 2.8 times higher than the acceptable limit of 1.5 mg/L, before and after monsoon respectively. To estimate the human health risks due to the ingestion of elevated fluoride through drinking water, hazard quotient fluoride (HQ_Fluoride) was calculated using the United States Environmental Protection Agency method. HQ_Fluoride values were 0.44–2.44 and 0.89–4.67 for children, 0.36–2.00 and 0.73–3.82 for females, and 0.41–2.26 and 0.82–4.31 for males in pre- and post-monsoon seasons respectively, suggesting emphatically greater risk than the acceptable limits (HQ_Fluoride > 1), which generates health risks.     

Continuing impacts on red deer from a volcanic eruption in 2011

In June of 2011, the Puyehue–Cordon Caulle volcanic eruption deposited large amounts of ashes in Chile and Argentina. Although ashes were initially considered innoxious based on water leachates, we found clinical cases of fluoride intoxication in red deer (Cervus elaphus) and domestic herbivores in Argentina. The diagnosis was corroborated by high bone fluoride concentrations. The dynamics of temporal accumulation of fluoride suggested an average increase of 1,000 ppm per year of fluoride in the bone. However, a few deer had fluoride levels, suggesting an accumulation rate of about 3,700 ppm per year. Via recent sampling of deer, we now confirm that bone levels have reached up to 10,396 ppm of fluoride after about 28 months of exposure. Tephra across various sites averaged 548 ppm of fluoride, and due to dry conditions and eolic redeposition of ashes particularly east of the continental divide, clinical fluorosis is expected to continue to intensify. The described impact will reverberate through several aspects of the ecology of the deer, including effects on population dynamics, morbidity, predation susceptibility, as well as other components of the ecosystem, including other herbivores, scavengers, and plant communities.     

Inhibition of Streptococcus mutans biofilm accumulation and development of dental caries in vivo by 7-epiclusianone and fluoride

7-Epiclusianone (7-epi), a novel naturally occurring compound isolated from Rheedia brasiliensis, effectively inhibits the synthesis of exopolymers and biofilm formation by Streptococcus mutans. In the present study, the ability of 7-epi, alone or in combination with fluoride (F), to disrupt biofilm development and pathogenicity of S. mutans in vivo was examined using a rodent model of dental caries. Treatment (twice-daily, 60s exposure) with 7-epi, alone or in combination with 125 ppm F, resulted in biofilms with less biomass and fewer insoluble glucans than did those treated with vehicle-control, and they also displayed significant cariostatic effects in vivo (p < 0.05). The combination 7-epi + 125 ppm F was as effective as 250 ppm F (positive-control) in reducing the development of both smooth- and sulcal-caries. No histopathological alterations were observed in the animals after the experimental period. The data show that 7-epiclusianone is a novel and effective antibiofilm/anticaries agent, which may enhance the cariostatic properties of fluoride.     

Measuring Hordein (Gluten) in Beer – A Comparison of ELISA and Mass Spectrometry

Background

Subjects suffering from coeliac disease, gluten allergy/intolerance must adopt a lifelong avoidance of gluten. Beer contains trace levels of hordeins (gluten) which are too high to be safely consumed by most coeliacs. Accurate measurement of trace hordeins by ELISA is problematic.

Methods

We have compared hordein levels in sixty beers, by sandwich ELISA, with the level determined using multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry (MRM-MS).

Results

Hordein levels measured by ELISA varied by four orders of magnitude, from zero (for known gluten-free beers) to 47,000 µg/mL (ppm; for a wheat-based beer). Half the commercial gluten-free beers were free of hordein by MS and ELISA. Two gluten-free and two low-gluten beers had zero ELISA readings, but contained significant hordein levels (p<0.05), or near average (60–140%) hordein levels, by MS, respectively. Six beers gave false negatives, with zero ELISA readings but near average hordein content by MS. Approximately 20% of commercial beers had ELISA readings less than 1 ppm, but a near average hordein content by MS. Several barley beers also contained undeclared wheat proteins.

Conclusions

ELISA results did not correlate with the relative content of hordein peptides determined by MS, with all barley based beers containing hordein. We suggest that mass spectrometry is more reliable than ELISA, as ELISA enumerates only the concentration of particular amino-acid epitopes; this may vary between different hordeins and may not be related to the absolute hordein concentration. MS quantification is undertaken using peptides that are specific and unique, enabling the quantification of individual hordein isoforms. This outlines the problem of relying solely on ELISA determination of gluten in beverages such as beer and highlights the need for the development of new sensitive and selective quantitative assay such as MS.     

Biochemical characterization and growth patterns of new yeast isolates

African sorghum opaque beers play a vital role in the diet of millions of consumers. In the current study we investigated the growth profiles of yeast strains isolated from kpete-kpete, a traditional starter used to produce tchoukoutou, an opaque sorghum beer in Benin. 10 yeast strains were isolated from sorghum beer starters and cultivated under both liquid and solid media for phenotypic growth characterization. All yeast isolates were able to grow both on solid and liquid media. Based on their growth profiles, the isolates were clustered into three groups: (i) the aggressive growth pattern (30 %), (ii) the moderate growth pattern (50 %), and (iii) the slow growth pattern (20 %). Based on gene expression pattern, absorbance (A_600nm) and diameter of growth in both liquid and solid media respectively, yeast strains YK34, YK15 and YK48 were clustered in the first group, and referred to as the most aggressive growth strains, followed by group 2 (YK24, YK5, YK12, YK20, YK2) and group 3 (YK37, YK41). This growth pattern was confirmed by Invertase gene expression profiling of the yeasts showing group 1 with high level of Invertase gene expression followed by group 2 and group 3 respectively. Our results suggest that YK34, YK15 and YK48 and YK2 yeast strains constitute the best candidates in fermentation of sorghum beer production based on growth rate and assimilation of carbon and nitrogen sources.     

An approach to develop a model for describing the influence of fluoride-contaminated irrigation water on physiological responses in poplar (Populus deltoides clone S7C15)

The physiological responses pertaining to influence of fluoride-contaminated irrigation water (100–500 ppm) on 6-week-old seedlings of Populus deltoides, a fast growing tree crop in northern India are investigated. It is observed that the various fluoride concentrations in irrigation water are directly proportional to the changes in the physiological responses. The reduction in stomatal conductance is found higher (~57 %) in relation to photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation (~38 %) and chlorophyll fluorescence yield (~12 %) in fluoride-contaminated (100 ppm) irrigation. Similarly, impaired values for g _s (75 %), P _N (55 %), and F _v/F _m (18 %) are also triggered by higher level of fluoride-contaminated (200 ppm) irrigation. Further higher dose of fluoride (500 ppm) contaminated irrigation water could severely minimize the physiological responses viz., g _s, P _N and F _v/F _m ca. 86, 65, and 36 %. A mathematical model developed based on the changes in rates of stomatal conductance (Δg _s/ΔC), photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation (ΔP _N/ΔC) and chlorophyll fluorescence yield (ΔF _v/F _m/ΔC), which has shown straight line relationship, and was verified with average deviations from 1.86 to 5.87 %. The calculated physiological responses influenced by fluoride irrigation on poplar seedlings are also verified with developed model. The governing equation suggests the existence of functional relationship between physiological responses and applied fluoride treatment doses. Hence, the cultivation of poplar crop may be designed precisely in fluoride affected areas to boost and sustain agro-socio economy.     

Blood Trace Element Concentrations in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a prevalent condition in women of reproductive age. PCOS is characterized by androgen excess and chronic anovulation and associated with low-grade inflammation and metabolic comorbidities. Some trace elements have been linked to pathophysiological mechanisms of oxidative stress and inflammation in different disorders. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the available evidence regarding trace element concentrations in PCOS. We reviewed MEDLINE and EMBASE in search of case-control, cross-sectional, and cohort studies published until September 2015. Of 183 studies identified, six were selected for systematic review. All used the Rotterdam criteria for the diagnosis of PCOS. Two studies evaluating chromium and one assessing cobalt levels did not observe differences between PCOS and controls. Another study recorded similar nickel and vanadium levels between the groups, but lower selenium concentrations in women with PCOS compared to controls. Four studies were included in the random effects model meta-analysis, for a total of 264 PCOS and 151 control women. Copper levels were found to be higher in women with PCOS than in controls [mean difference 0.12 ppm (95 % CI 0.07; 0.17 ppm); I ²?=?0 %]. Manganese [mean difference 0.04 ppm (95 % CI ?0.05; 0.13 ppm); I ²?=?94.4 %] and zinc concentrations [mean difference 0.02 ppm (95 % CI ?0.12; 0.16 ppm); I ²?=?92.4 %] were similar between the groups. The present results suggest a relationship between increased copper concentration and PCOS. This systematic review and meta-analysis is registered in PROSPERO under number CRD42016034036.     

IMPACT OF TRAINING ON BEER FLAVOR PERCEPTION AND DESCRIPTION: ARE TRAINED AND UNTRAINED SUBJECTS REALLY DIFFERENT?

This study examines the effect of beer assessment training on verbal and nonverbal performance. Two groups of subjects are asked to sort, match, and describe a set of 12 beers (6 supplemented and 6 commercial beers). Subjects from the first group are enrolled in a beer-training program. Subjects in the second group are untrained beer consumers. Results show that although both groups perform the matching task equally well, trained subjects performed better on supplemented beers and untrained subjects on commercial beers. Examination of the generated vocabulary shows that 44% of the terms are common to trained and untrained subjects. However, an analysis of the terms' efficiency shows that whereas for trained subjects, precise terms are more efficient than intensity or hedonic terms; the opposite is observed for untrained subjects. This suggests that it is not the term itself that is important but the common reference associated to it.     

Construction of dextrin and isomaltose-assimilating brewer’s yeasts for production of low-carbohydrate beer

Most Saccharomyces spp. cannot degrade or ferment dextrin, which is the second most abundant carbohydrate in wort for commercial beer production. Dextrin-degrading brewer’s bottom and top yeasts expressing the glucoamylase gene (GAM1) from Debaryomyces occidentalis were developed to produce low-carbohydrate (calorie) beers. GAM1 was constitutively expressed in brewer’s yeasts using a rDNA-integration system that contained yeast CUP1 gene coding for copper resistance as a selective marker. The recombinants secreted active glucoamylase, displaying both α-1,4- and α-1,6-debranching activities, that degraded dextrin and isomaltose and consequently grew using them as sole carbon source. One of the recombinant strains expressing GAM1 hydrolyzed 96 % of 2 % (w/v) dextrin and 98 % of 2 % (w/v) isomaltose within 5 days of growth. Growth, substrate assimilation, and enzyme activity of these strains were characterized.     

Suppression of Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation and TCA Enzymes in Discrete Brain Regions of Mice Exposed to High Fluoride: Amelioration by Panax ginseng (Ginseng) and Lagerstroemia speciosa (Banaba) Extracts

Chronic fluoride intoxication results in pathophysiological complications pertaining to soft tissues, called non-skeletal fluorosis. This study examined whether fluoride-induced alterations in selected parameters that are indicative of mitochondrial dysfunction accompany the toxic effects of fluoride in discrete brain regions in vivo and also explored the possibility of treatment with Ginseng (GE) and Banaba (BLE) either alone or with their co-exposure which is capable of reversing parameters indicative of fluoride-induced impairments in mitochondrial function. Swiss mice, Mus musculus, were given 270 ppm fluoride (600 ppm NaF) in their drinking water for 30 days, while continuing the fluoride exposure, toxicated animals were given differential doses (50–250 mg/kg body wt) of phytoextracts through oral gavage for 2 weeks. Discrete brain regions separated from dissected animals to perform biochemical assessments. Disturbances in mitochondrial enzyme complexes (I-IV) and decrements in TCA enzymes (ICDH, SDH, and aconitase) were noted in discrete brain regions upon F exposure, suggesting mitochondrial dysfunction. In addition, a significant reduction in oxidative stress indices with increased MDA content as well as decrease in reduced glutathione content and increases in catalase and SOD enzyme activity suggests the involvement of severe oxidative stress affecting the mitochondrial function(s). Treatment with either GE or BLE reversed F-induced alterations in augmenting the suppressed complex enzymes followed by TCA enzymes and oxidative stress indices in a dose independent manner. However, the co-exposure of GE and BLE at a dose of 150 mg/kgbw appeared to restore mitochondrial functioning. These results provide in vivo evidence supporting the hypothesis that fluoride induces impairments in mitochondrial function, which can be reversed by treatment with GE and BLE as well their co-exposure at 150 mg/kgbw.     

氟对成骨细胞样细胞胞内钙和钙通道电流的影响

目的 :观察氟 (Fluoride,F-)对培养的成骨细胞样细胞胞内钙和钙通道电流的影响。方法 :应用Fura 2负载的成骨细胞样细胞 ,通过紫外荧光分光光度仪测定细胞内游离钙的浓度 ,同时应用全细胞膜片钳技术记录成骨细胞样细胞钙通道的变化。结果 :氟可引起成骨细胞样细胞胞内钙增高 ,尤以 10 0ng/mlF-最为明显 ,与对照组比较差异显著 (P <0 .0 5 )。应用全细胞膜片钳技术发现 2 5ng/mlF-即可引起成骨细胞样细胞钙通道开放 ,随着染F-剂量的增加 ,Ca2 +通道电流的幅值增大 (P <0 .0 1) ,且F-对Ca2 +通道电流的兴奋作用呈剂量依赖性 (r =0 .9914)。结论 :F-可引起成骨细胞样细胞钙通道开放 ,从而导致细胞胞内钙浓度的增加。     

Excessive Fluoride Consumption Leads to Accelerated Death of Erythrocytes and Anemia in Rats

The present study was performed to evaluate an overall effect of long-term consumption of excessive fluoride (F) amounts by rats on their erythrocytes. The animals were administered regular drinking water (0.4 ppm F) or the same water supplemented with 2, 10, and 20 ppm F (as NaF) for 12 months. Chronic exposure of the rats to increasing F doses induced a progressive rise of the plasma F concentration accompanied by a dose-dependent fall of hematocrit and decrease in the mean erythrocyte volume. Consumption of 10 and 20 ppm F resulted in appearance of morphologically abnormal cells (stomatocytes and echinocytes) in the peripheral blood. Rise of the water F concentration to 20 ppm F led to significant increase in the number of phosphatidylserine-exposing erythrocytes, although suppression of cell viability was revealed in all three groups of F-poisoned rats. A compensatory enhanced release of reticulocytes was not sufficient to compensate for erythrocyte loss. Dose-dependent accumulation of free cytosolic Ca²⁺ appears to be a major pathophysiological process underlying the development of F-induced death processes in rat erythrocytes. In addition, 10 and 20 ppm F induced ATP depletion and generation of peroxides in erythrocytes, whereas superoxide and glutathione levels were not altered. Thus, long-term intoxication of the rats with F triggers premature death of their erythrocytes due to intrinsic death-associated biochemical defects and development of anemia.     

Effect of two plant growth retardants on steviol glycosides content and antioxidant capacity in Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni)

Two greenhouse experiments were conducted to study the effect of two plant growth retardants, Chlorocholine chloride (CCC) and Paclobutrazol (PBZ), on growth, Steviol glycosides (SVglys) content and antioxidant capacity in Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni). Five concentrations of CCC (0, 250, 500, 750 and 1,000 ppm) and PBZ (0, 6, 12, 18 and 24 ppm) with three replications were applied to Stevia plants as treatments based on completely randomized design. CCC was sprayed on Stevia shoots, but PBZ was applied as a drench. The obtained results showed that CCC reduced plant height but improved leaf and stem dry weight, especially with 750 ppm concentration. Total SVgly content and consequently SVglys yield were significantly reduced by CCC application, and 1,000 ppm of CCC concentration was more effective than other treatments. PBZ had no effect on Stevia height while it significantly enhanced stem and dry weight at 12 ppm. Moreover, PBZ remarkably increased total SVglys contents, SVglys yield, and Rebaudioside A/Stevioside ratio. Total antioxidant capacity significantly varied with CCC and PBZ and the highest activity was obtained with 1,000 and 12 ppm of CCC and PBZ, respectively. The results of these experiments indicated that, although CCC and PBZ are plant growth retardants and act as anti-gibberellins, only CCC reduced plant height and SVglys production in Stevia. On the contrary, PBZ at 12 ppm concentration, improved Stevia growth, SVglys production, and antioxidant capacity.     

Nutritional value of some algae from the north-western Mediterranean coast of Egypt

Fourteen taxa from Chlorophyta, Rhodophyta and Phaeophyta were collected from seven stations at different depths, along the north-western Mediterranean coast of Egypt during winter and summer 2006. Total carbohydrates (TCH), total protein (TPr), total lipids (TL), chlorophyll a, β-carotene, minerals and trace metals were determined in a total of 50 specimens. The concentrations of these components varied significantly with respect to the algal taxa and showed different patterns of distribution in the three classes. The content of TCH ranged from 5 to 20.9?%, being much higher for Cystoseira spinosa (20.9?%), TPr 3.86 to 27.65?% where Gelidium corneum showed the maximum value and TL content displayed wide variation (2.34 to 48.95?%), with Sargassum hornschuchii having the highest values. A minor component was β-carotene in all samples (1.80?2.50?×?10^?3 mg (100 g)^?1) which was much lower than in vegetables, in contrast to chlorophyll a concentrations which have attained high values (6.70?94.20 mg (100 g)^?1) and were lower than in vegetables. Mineral content was abundant in all samples and was higher than in common food and vegetables, whereas the measured trace metals all exceeded the permissible doses and were far from the accepted concentrations in the regulations of many countries. This limits their use in food consumption, except copper which recorded acceptable concentrations in the study. The maximum values of phosphorus (3,305 mg (100 g^?1), potassium (930 mg (100 g^?1) and calcium (3,070 mg (100 g^?1) were recorded in members of Chlorophyceae: Codium bursa, Udotea sp. and Udotea petiolata, whereas the red alga Rhodymenia ardissonei had the lowest concentrations in iodine (80 ppm) and sodium (1,450 mg (100 g)^?1) and the highest concentrations in the trace metals copper (3.89 ppm), nickel (13.14 ppm), zinc (38.87 ppm) and a relatively large amount of lead (41.60 ppm).