Synthesis and evaluation of dithiolethiones as novel cyclooxygenase inhibitors

3H-1,2-Dithiole-3-thiones substituted with a 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl (DTBHP) or a 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-methoxyphenyl group at the C5 position were prepared and their ability to inhibit the cyclooxygenase isoenzymes, COX-1 and COX-2 was evaluated. Both compounds were potent inhibitors of COX-2 (relative to rofecoxib), and while the phenol was a weak inhibitor of COX-1, the methyl ether gave no measurable inhibition. Docking studies of the two compounds into the COX-1 and -2 active sites showed that the methyl ether could only fit in the COX-2 active site whereas the phenol could be docked into both COX-1 and -2. This study reports a new mode for inhibitor binding to COX-1 and -2 and a novel structural scaffold for the development of COX-2 selective inhibitors.     

Mono- and dinuclear (o-thioetherphenolato)-copper(II) complexes. Structural models for galactose oxidase

Three new o-thioetherphenol ligands have been synthesized: 1,2-bis(3,5-di-tert-butyl-2-hydroxyphenylsulfanyl)ethane (H₂bse), 1,2-bis(3,5-di-tert-butyl-2-hydroxyphenylsulfanyl)benzene (H₂bsb), and 4,6-di-tert-butyl-2-phenylsulfanylphenol (Hpsp). Their complexes with copper(II) were prepared and investigated by UV-Vis-, EPR-spectroscopy; their electro- and magnetochemistry have also been studied: [Cu^II(psp)₂] (1), [Cu^II₂(bse)₂] (2), [Cu^II₂(bsb)₂] (3), [Cu^II(bsb)(py)₂] (4). The crystal structures of the ligands H₂bse, H₂bsb, Hpsp and of the complexes 1, 2, 3, 4 have been determined by X-ray crystallography.     

Molecular structure and catechol oxidase activity of a new copper(I) complex with sterically crowded monodentate N-donor ligand

The attempted alkylation of 1,3-bis(2′-pyridylimino)isoindoline (indH) by the use of n-BuLi and subsequent alkyl halides led to quaternization of the pyridine nitrogens and the zwitterionic monodentate N-ligand (Me₂ind)I was formed. By the use of the ligand the copper(I) complex [Cu^I(Me₂ind)I₂] was prepared and its structure determined. It was found to be good catalyst for the oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol (DTBCH₂) to 3,5-di-tert-butyl-1,2-benzoquinone (DTBQ) and H₂O₂ by dioxygen. Detailed kinetic studies revealed first-order dependence on the catalyst and dioxygen concentration and saturation type behavior with respect to the substrate.     

The metabolism of 3,5-di-tert.-butyl-4-hydroxytoluene in the rat and in man

1. The major metabolites of 3,5-di-tert.-butyl-4-hydroxytoluene (BHT) in the rat are 3,5-di-tert.-butyl-4-hydroxybenzoic acid (BHT-acid), both free (9% of the dose) and as a glucuronide (15%), and S-(3,5-di-tert.-butyl-4-hydroxybenzyl)-N-acetylcysteine. 2. The mercapturic acid does not appear to derive from the usually accepted enzyme mechanism, and may involve a non-enzymic reaction between BHT free radical and cysteine. 3. The ester glucuronide and mercapturic acid found in rat urine are also the major metabolites in rat bile and must be responsible for the enterohepatic circulation. 4. Free BHT-acid is the main component in rat faeces. 5. In man, BHT-acid, free and conjugated, is a minor component in urine, and the mercapturic acid is virtually absent. The bulk of the radioactivity is excreted as the ether-insoluble glucuronide of a metabolite in which the ring methyl group and one tert.-butyl methyl group are oxidized to carboxyl groups, and a methyl group on the other tert.-butyl group is also oxidized, probably to an aldehyde group. 6. These differences in metabolism by the rat and by man are sufficient to account for the difference in excretion by the two species.     

Evaluation of cytotoxicity and efficiency of antioxidant protection of hydrophilic derivatives of 2,4,6-trialkylphenols in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis> cells

The effects of five new derivatives of 2,6-dialkyl-4-propylphenol containing different ionogenic groups (-SO₃Na, -S-SO₃Na, -S-(NH₂)₂Cl) in the para position on survival of the E. coli AB1157 strain and its isogenic strain deficient in repair enzyme genes have been investigated in the presence and in the absence of hydrogen peroxide. Survival of cells treated with hydrogen peroxide was markedly increased in the presence of sodium (3-(3,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)propyl)-1-sulphonate (C1). Replacement of methyl substituents at ortho-position of C1 for tert-butyl or cyclohexyl groups decreased cell protection against exogenous hydrogen peroxide. Among 2,6-di-tert-buthylphenol the compound with the thiosulphonate group demonstrated properties similar to its sulphonate analog, whereas 3 mM isothiuronium chloride completely suppressed cell growth both in the absence and in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. Thus, among the tested compounds C1 may be considered as the most promising antioxidant.     

Catechol oxidase and phenoxazinone synthase activity of a manganese(II) isoindoline complex

The mononuclear [Mn(6′Me₂indH)(H₂O)₂(CH₃CN)](ClO₄)₂ (6′Me₂indH: 1,3-bis(6′-methyl-2′-pyridylimino)isoindoline) complex has been prepared and characterized by various techniques such as elemental analysis, IR, UV-visible and ESR spectroscopy. The title compound was suitable as catalyst for the catalytic oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol (3,5-DTBCH₂) to 3,5-di-tert-butyl-1,2-benzoquinone (3,5-DTBQ) (catecholase activity), and o-aminophenol (OAPH) to 2-aminophenoxazine-3-one (APX) (phenoxazinone synthase activity) with dioxygen at ambient condition in good yields. Kinetic measurements revealed first-order dependence on the catalyst and dioxygen concentration and saturation type behavior with respect to the corresponding substrate. It was also found that the added triethylamine in both systems accelerates the reaction.     

Synthesis and antiperoxidant activity of new phenolic O-glycosides

We describe the synthesis of some 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl -glycopyranosides by reaction of tert-butylhydroquinone with β- -pentaacetyl-glucose, β- -pentaacetyl-galactose, 2-acetamido- and 3,4,6-tri-O-acetyl-2-butanamido-2-deoxy-β- -glucopyranosyl chlorides as well as the formation of anomeric 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl 4,6-di-O-acetyl-2,3-dideoxy- -erythro-hex-2-eno-pyranosides by reaction between tert-butylhydroquinone and 3,4,6-tri-O-acetyl- -glucal. All compounds, except 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl α- and β- -glucopyranosides, inhibited lipid peroxidation with a degree of potency comparable to that of tert-butyl hydroxyanisole.     

H2: heterodisulfide oxidoreductase,a second energy-conserving system in the methanogenic strain Gö1

Washed everted vesicles of the methanogenic bacterium strain Gö1 catalyzed an H₂-dependent reduction of the heterodisulfide of HS-CoM (2-mercaptoethanesulfonate) and HS-HTP (7-mercaptoheptanoylthreonine phosphate) (CoM-S-S-HTP). This process was independent of coenzyme F₄₂₀ and was coupled to proton translocation across the cytoplasmic membrane into the lumen of the everted vesicles. The maximal H⁺/CoM-S-S-HTP ratio was 2. The tranmembrane electrochemical gradient thereby generated was shown to induce ATP synthesis from ADP+P_i, exhibiting a stoichiometry of 1 ATP synthesized per 2 CoM-S-S-HTP reduced (H⁺/ATP=4). ATP formation was inhibited by the uncoupler 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxy-benzylidene-malononitrile (SF 6847) and by the ATP synthase inhibitor N,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD). This energy-conserving system showed a stringent coupling. The addition of HS-CoM and HS-HTP at 1 mM each decreased the heterodisulfide reductase activity to 50% of the control. Membranes from Methanolobus tindarius showed F₄₂₀H₂-dependent but no H₂-dependent heterodisulfide oxidoreductase activity. Neither of these activities was detectable in membranes of Methanococcus thermolithotrophicus.Abbreviations _H+ transmembrane electrochemical gradient of H⁺ - CoM-SH 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate - F₄₂₀ (N-l-lactyl--l-glutamyl)-l-glutamic acid phosphodiester of 7,8-didemethyl-8-hydroxy-5-deazariboflavin-5-phosphate - F₄₂₀H₂ reduced F₄₂₀ - HTP-SH 7-mercaptoheptanoylthreonine phosphate - DCCD N,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide - SF 6847 3,5-di-ert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzylidenemalononitrile - Mb. Methanobacterium - Ml. Methanolobus - Mc. Methanococcus - MV methylviologen - BV benzylviologen - MTZ metronidazole     

Synthesis of the Stereoisomeric Mixture of the Compound Having the Proposed Structure for “Auxin b Lactone”

The composed having the proposed structure for auxin b lactone (XVIII) was synthesized by formic acid hydrolysis of 4-ethoxy-6-(3,5-di-sec-butyl-1-cyclopenten-1-yl)-5,6-dihydro-2-pyrone (XVII) which was, in turn, prepared by the Reformatsky reaction of 3,5-di-sec-butyl-1-cyclopentenealdehyde (XVI) with ethyl γ-bromo-β-ethoxycrotonate.     

Dual antioxidant structures with potent anti-inflammatory,hypolipidemic and cytoprotective properties

Novel amide derivatives of trolox, 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, (E)-3-(3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)acrylic acid and cinnamic acid with cysteamine and l-cysteine ethyl ester were synthesised. In four cases, the disulfide derivatives were also isolated and tested. All compounds were examined for antioxidant activity, expressed as their ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation and to scavenge free radicals. They were found to demonstrate up to 17-fold better activity than that of the parent antioxidant acids. They could reduce acute inflammation up to 87%. The most active antioxidant compounds were further tested for their in vivo hypolipidemic effect, which ranged from 47% to 73%, and for their ability to protect the liver against oxidative toxicity caused by high paracetamol dose. The disulfide derivatives of 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzoic acid and cinnamic acid had no antioxidant activity and presented equal or lower anti-inflammatory effect than their thiol analogues, indicating that their molecular characteristics may not permit biological barrier penetration.     

DFT study of new bipyrazole derivatives and their potential activity as corrosion inhibitors

In the present work, a theoretical study of five bipyrazolic-type organic compounds, 4-{bis[(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazolyl-1-yl)methyl]-amino}phenol (1), N1,N1-bis[(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)methyl}]-N4,N4-dimethyl-1,4-benzenediamine (2), N,N-bis[(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)methyl]aniline (3), 4-[bis(3,5-dimethyl pyrazol-1-yl-methyl)-amino]butan-1-ol (4) and ethyl4-[bis(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl-methyl) aminobenzoate] (5), has been performed using density functional theory (DFT) at the B3LYP/6-31G(d) level in order to elucidate the different inhibition efficiencies and reactive sites of these compounds as corrosion inhibitors. The efficiencies of corrosion inhibitors and the global chemical reactivity relate to some parameters, such as EHOMO, ELUMO, gap energy (ΔE) and other parameters, including electronegativity (χ), global hardness (η) and the fraction of electrons transferred from the inhibitor molecule to the metallic atom (ΔN). The calculated results are in agreement with the experimental data on the whole. In addition, the local reactivity has been analyzed through the Fukui function and condensed softness indices.     

Spontaneous and radical-induced plasma membrane lipid peroxidation in differently oxidant-sensitive yeast species and its suppression by antioxidants

Formation of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBRS; nmol/mg lipids) indicative of lipid peroxidation was measured in whole cells and in isolated plasma membrane lipids from three yeast species differing in oxidant sensitivity (Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Saccharomyces cerevisiae andRhodotorula glutinis) after exposure to the Fenton reagent, Fe^II, H₂O₂,tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) and azo compounds (AAPH, ACHN). In whole cells, spontaneous TBRS formation rose in the sequenceS. pombe<S. cerevisiae<R. glutinis (1:∼5:∼7). Oxidants increased the TBRS production 13–18 fold in the sequence Fe^II∼TBHP>AAPH∼ACHN∼Fe-Fenton>H₂O₂. This increase need not be solely due to increased lipid peroxidation. In isolated plasma membrane lipids from all three species, the spontaneous TBRS production referred to 1 mg lipids was 9–13-fold higher than in whole cells. InS. pombe lipids, only TBHP increased the TBRS production. In lipids fromS. cerevisiae andR. glutinis, all added oxidants increased the spontaneous TBRS production 2–3 times in the sequence TBHP>ACHN>AAPH>Fe^II>Fe-Fenton>H₂O₂. Oxidant-induced TBRS production in both whole cells and isolated membrane lipids was partially suppressed by the lipid peroxidation inhibitors 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol (“butylated hydroxytoluene”; BHT) and the newly synthesized PYA12 compound. Both agents were more effective in isolated lipids than in whole cells and against OH-producing than against ROO-or RO-producing oxidants. Yeast membrane lipids, which are generally poor in polyunsaturated fatty acids, are thus subject to perceptible lipid peroxidation.     

Magnetic and catalytic properties of a new copper(II)-Schiff base 2D coordination polymer formed by connected helical chains

A dicyanamide bridged 2D polynuclear complex of copper(II) having molecular formula [Cu₂(L)(μ_1,5-dca)₂]_n (1) has been synthesized using the Schiff base ligand N,N′-bis(salicylidene)-1,3-diaminopentane, (H₂L) and sodium dicyanamide (dca). The complex presents a 2D hexagonal structure formed by 1,5-dca singly bridged helical chains connected through double 1,5-dca bridges. The chelating characteristics of the H₂L Schiff base ligand results in the formation of copper(II) dimer with a double phenoxo bridge presenting a very strong antiferromagnetic coupling in the copper(II) derivative (1) (J = −510 cm⁻¹). The dimeric asymmetric unit of 1 is very similar to the active site of the catechol oxidase and, as expected, also presents catalytic activity for the oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol to 3,5-di-tert-butylquinone in presence of O₂, as demonstrated by kinetic studies of this oxidation reaction monitored by absorption spectroscopy resulting in high turnover number (K_cat = 259 h⁻¹).     

Synthesis and characterization of organotin Schiff base chelates

The synthesis and characterization of five organotin compounds containing Salophen(^tBu) [Salophen(^tBu)=N,N′-phenylene-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylideneimine)], Salomphen(^tBu) [Salomphen(^tBu)=N,N′-(4,5-dimethyl)phenylene-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylideneimine)] and Phensal(^tBu) [Phensal(^tBu)=3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene(1-aminophenylene-2-amine)] ligands is described. These compounds include the monomeric complexes LSnCl₂ (where L=Salophen(^tBu), L=Salomphen(^tBu)), L(ⁿBu)SnCl (where L=Salophen(^tBu), Salomphen(^tBu)), L(ⁿBu)SnCl₂ (where L=Phensal(^tBu)). Spectroscopic techniques including ¹¹⁹Sn NMR and X-ray crystallography were used in the characterization of the compounds.     

Studies of carbohydrate derivatives having the -CH2F function

The following primary sulphonates have been converted into the corresponding deoxyfluoro derivatives by reaction with potassium fluoride in ethylene glycol:1,2:3,4-di-O-isopropylidene-6-O-tosyl α-D-galactopyranose (1), methyl 2,3-O2-isopropyliden-5-O-tosyl-α,β-D-ribofuranoside (2), 1,2:3,4-di-O-methylene-6-O-tosyl-α-D-glucofuranose (3), 3,5-di-O-benzylidene-1,2-O-isopropylidene-6-O-tosyl-α-D-glucofuranose (4), and 1,2:3,5-di-O-isopropylidene-6-O-tosyl-α-D-glucofuranose (5). The yields were generally poor; in the reaction of 1, a major by-product was 6-O-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1,2:3,4-di-O-isopropylidene-α-D-galactopyranose (11). The reaction of the primary hydroxyl precursor of each of the above tosylates with N2-(2-chloro- 1,1,2-trifluoroethyl)-N,N-diethylamine generally yielded the O-chlorofluoroacetyl derivative; however, 1,2:3,5-di-O-methylene-α-D-glucofuranose (12) was converted into the 6-deoxy-6-fluoro derivative (8). The ¹⁹F resonances of compounds containing the CH₂F moiety fall between φ_C +213 and φ_C +235 p.p.m. The differences between the vicinal¹⁹F-¹H couplings of compounds having the D-gluco and D-galacto configurations clearly reflect the influence of the C-4O-4 substitutents on the populations of the C-5C-6 rotamers. A novel type of noise-modulated, heteronuclear decoupling experiment is described.     

Phenoxyl-copper(II) complexes: models for the active site of galactose oxidase

 The reaction of the macrocycles 1,4,7-tris (3,5-di-tert-butyl-2-hydroxy-benzyl)-1,4,7-triazacyclononane, L¹H₃, or 1,4,7-tris(3-tert-butyl-5-methoxy-2-hydroxy-benzyl)-1,4,7-triazacyclononane, L²H₃, with Cu(ClO₄)₂·6H₂O in methanol (in the presence of Et₃N) affords the green complexes [Cu^II(L¹H)] (1), [Cu^II(L²H)]·CH₃OH (2) and (in the presence of HClO₄) [Cu^II(L¹H₂)](ClO₄) (3) and [Cu^II(L²H₂)] (ClO₄) (4). The Cu^II ions in these complexes are five-coordinate (square-base pyramidal), and each contains a dangling, uncoordinated pendent arm (phenol). Complexes 1 and 2 contain two equatorially coordinated phenolato ligands, whereas in 3 and 4 one of these is protonated, affording a coordinated phenol. Electrochemically, these complexes can be oxidized by one electron, generating the phenoxyl-copper(II) species [Cu^II(L¹H)]^+ ·, [Cu(L²H)]^+ ·, [Cu^II(L¹H₂)]^2+ ·, and [Cu^II(L²H₂)]^2+ ·, all of which are EPR-silent. These species are excellent models for the active form of the enzyme galactose oxidase (GO). Their spectroscopic features (UV-VIS, resonance Raman) are very similar to those reported for GO and unambiguously show that the complexes are phenoxyl-copper(II) rather than phenolato-copper(III) species. Received: 10 February 1997 / Accepted: 7 April 1997     

Electron spray ionization mass study on dioxygenation process in the reaction of catecholatoiron(III) complexes with molecular oxygen

The oxygenation reactions of two catecholatoiron(III) complexes, [Fe(TPA)(3,5-di-tert-butylcatecholate)]BPh₄ (1) and [Fe(TPA)(4-chlorocatecholate)]BPh₄ (2) (TPA = tris(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)amine), with O₂ have been investigated by means of ESI-MS spectrometry to elucidate the detailed mechanisms of oxygen atom insertion from O₂ into the catecholate ligands promoted by iron(III) complexes. Both 1 and 2 gave products formed by incorporation of two oxygen atoms into the catecholate ligands; 2,4-di-tert-butylmuconolactone for 1 and cis-dienelactone for 2. ESI-MS spectra of the products formed by the reaction with ¹⁸O₂ revealed the following points: (1) Two oxygen atoms of 2,4-di-tert-butylmuconolactone are mostly derived from ¹⁸O₂. (2) cis-Dienelactone is obtained as a mixture of mono- and double-¹⁸O-labeled species with a ratio of 50:50. These results suggest that the second oxygen atom is incorporated into muconic anhydride through nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl groups of muconic anhydride by the ¹⁸O-oxo-group of the metal center, and that this process competes with dissociation of muconic anhydride from the metal center.     

[Cp*IrCl2]2 catalyzed hydroborations of alkenes using a bulky dioxaborocine

4,8-Di-tert-butyl-2,10-dimethyl-12H-dibenzo[d,g][1,3,2]dioxaborocine (1) has been prepared in high yield by the addition of H₃B·SMe₂ to 6,6′-methylene(2-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol). Dioxaborocine 1 is a relatively stable solid that reacts with a variety of aliphatic alkenes in the presence of catalytic amounts of [Cp*IrCl₂]₂ to give the terminal hydroboration products. Analogous reactions with vinylarenes, however, afford the corresponding alkenylboronate esters along with equal amounts of the hydrogenation products. Boron products have been characterized by a number of physical and analytical methods, including single-crystal X-ray diffraction studies.     

A New Lignan (Polonilignan) and Inhibitors of Nitric Oxide Production from Penicillium polonicum,an Endophytic Fungi of Piper nigrum

Inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) or its production is found to be of therapeutic benefit. To discover natural small molecule inhibitors of NO production, a bioassay- and LC/MS-guided chemical investigation was done on the metabolites of endophytic fungus isolated from fresh Piper nigrum fruits. The isolated pure strain was identified as Penicillium polonicum by 16S rDNA sequence comparison. The culture broth extract of P. polonicum (EEPP) exhibited a significant reduction of NO production (Griess method) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells (P<0.0001). To understand the chemical constituents of bioactive EEPP, column chromatography and p-TLC studies were carried out, which yielded eight pure compounds. They were characterised as botryosphaeridione ( 1 ), 3-(3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxy)phenylpropionic acid ( 2 ), variabilone ( 3 ), 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol ( 4 ), indole-3-carboxylic acid ( 5 ), tyrosol ( 6 ), ethyl ferulate ( 7 ) and a new lignan ( 8 ) based on the spectral analysis. The structure elucidation of the new lignan, named polonilignan ( 8 ), was based on HR-MS, ¹H- & ¹³C-NMR, H−H COSY, HSQC and HMBC spectra. Compounds 2 , 4 , 5 and 6 showed a significant decrease (P<0.0001) in the production of NO in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Tyrosol ( 6 ) and indole-3-carboxylic acid ( 5 ) controlled nitrite release with IC₅₀ values of 22.84 and 55.01 μM, respectively. This is the first report of (i) P. polonicum as an endophytic fungus of pepper fruits, (ii) isolation of compounds 1 – 8 except 6 from P. polonicum culture broth extract and (iii) NO inhibition effect of 2 , 4 , 5 and 6 .     

Structure and function of the yeast vacuolar membrane proton ATPase

Our current work on a vacuolar membrane proton ATPase in the yeastSaccharomyces cerevisiae has revealed that it is a third type of H⁺-translocating ATPase in the organism. A three-subunit ATPase, which has been purified to near homogeneity from vacuolar membrane vesicles, shares with the native, membrane-bound enzyme common enzymological properties of substrate specificities and inhibitor sensitivities and are clearly distinct from two established types of proton ATPase, the mitochondrial F₀F₁-type ATP synthase and the plasma membrane E₁E₂-type H⁺-ATPase. The vacuolar membrane H⁺-ATPase is composed of three major subunits, subunita (M _r =67 kDa),b (57kDa), andc (20 kDa). Subunita is the catalytic site and subunitc functions as a channel for proton translocation in the enzyme complex. The function of subunitb has not yet been identified. The functional molecular masses of the H⁺-ATPase under two kinetic conditions have been determined to be 0.9–1.1×10⁵ daltons for single-cycle hydrolysis of ATP and 4.1–5.3×10⁵ daltons for multicycle hydrolysis of ATP, respectively.N,N-Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide does not inhibit the former reaction but strongly inhibits the latter reaction. The kinetics of single-cycle hydrolysis of ATP indicates the formation of an enzyme-ATP complex and subsequent hydrolysis of the bound ATP to ADP and Pi at a 7-chloro-4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazolesensitive catalytic site. Cloning of structural genes for the three subunits of the H⁺-ATPase (VMA1, VMA2, andVMA3) and their nucleotide sequence determination have been accomplished, which provide greater advantages for molecular biological studies on the structure-function relationship and biogenesis of the enzyme complex. Bioenergetic aspects of the vacuole as a main, acidic compartment ensuring ionic homeostasis in the cytosol have been described.Abbreviations CCCP carbonyl cyanidem-chlorophenyl hydrazone - DCCD N,N-dicyclohexylcarbondiimide - DES diethylstilbestrol - DIDS 4,4-diisothiocyano-2,2-stilbene disulfonic acid - NBD-Cl 7-chloro-4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole - Pi inorganic phosphate - SDS sodium dodecylsulfate - SF6847 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzylidenemalononitrile - SITS 4-acetamide-4-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2-disulfonic acid - ZW3-14 N-tetradecyl-N,N-dimethyl-3-ammonio-1-propanesulfonate