The origins of cultivation of Cicer arietinum L. and Vicia faba L.: early finds from Tell el-Kerkh, north-west Syria, late 10th millennium b.p.

Cicer arietinum L. (chickpea) and Vicia faba L. (faba bean, broad bean or horse bean) were found in late 10th millennium b.p. levels at Tell el-Kerkh, in north-west Syria. They are the earliest well preserved archaeobotanical finds of these two species. Over a hundred C. arietinum specimens were recovered which showed a wide morphological diversity varying from C. arietinum ssp. reticulatum to the more rounded shape as seen in cultivated varieties. For Vicia faba, 29 complete and 119 half seeds, as well as many fragments were recovered. Tell el-Kerkh is one of the few early PPNB Near Eastern sites situated in the Mediterranean zone which could have been the habitat of the unknown wild progenitor of the faba bean. The wild progenitor of chickpea, C. a. reticulatum, is found in a limited area of southeast Turkey, at a considerable distance from Tell el-Kerkh. These finds suggest that the use and domestication of these pulses is perhaps earlier than was previously supposed.     

Ecological differentiation of Central EuropeanBolboschoenus taxa and their relationship to plant communities

The taxa of theBolboschoenus maritimus group occurring in Central Europe were studied with respect to morphological differentiation, plant communities and soil conditions. Four morphological types ofBolboschoenus were distinguished, differing in habitat conditions, dispersal and distribution: type 1 —Bolboschoenus maritimus subsp.maritimus with narrow triangular fruits; type 2 —B. maritimus subsp.maritimus with wider triangular fruits, type 3 —B. maritimus subsp.compactus with round convex fruits; and type 4 —B. planiculmis auct. with concave fruits. Strong ecological differentiation of these types was found compared with relatively weak morphological diagnostic features. High discriminant efficiency appeared in the relationship to soil chemistry. Differences were also found in habitat-type spectra of individualBolboschoenus morphological types, which was reflected in their affinities to plant communities. Nomenclature, taxonomic classification, and distribution of these taxa in Europe need thorough revision.     

Carthamus species in the ancient Near East and south-eastern Europe: archaeobotanical evidence for their distribution and use as a source of oil

We present an overview of archaeobotanical Carthamus spp. finds from Neolithic to medieval sites in the Near East and adjacent areas. A particular focus is put on the cultivated form of the genus. Safflower appears first in a number of early Bronze Age (3000 b.c.) sites in northern and central Syria. From there it apparently spread to Egypt, the Aegean and south-eastern Europe. The Near Eastern Bronze Age evidence shows a striking exclusiveness in the distribution patterns of safflower and flax, with flax being restricted to Levantine and Iranian sites. This may reflect the contrasting ecological requirements of the two crops, with safflower being well adapted to drought and salinity and thus to arid conditions. At the same time the geographically complementary evidence may indicate a similar use of the two crops and most probably suggests that the safflower was also used for oil almost from the beginning of its cultivation. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Competition in microcosm between a clonal plant species (Bolboschoenusmaritimus) and a rare quillwort (Isoetessetacea) from Mediterranean temporary pools of southern France

Bolboschoenus maritimus, a clonal species, is locally invasive in Mediterranean temporary pools where it threatens endangered rare plant species such as Isoetes setacea. The combination of management modifications (grazing) and of the progressive accumulation of fine sediments in the pools contributed to the establishment of competitive perennial plants such as B. maritimus. The competitive advantage of B. maritimus on I. setacea has been studied in controlled conditions. The goal of this experiment was to assess the role of environmental conditions in the output of the competition between Bolboschoenus and Isoetes, notably hydrology and soil richness. For this purpose, Isoetes was cultivated alone (three individuals/pot) and with Bolboschoenus (three individuals of both species). The experiment was run with five replicates on six types of sediment (gradient of richness in sand/silt/clay) combined with three hydrological treatments (flooded, wet. and dry). The competitive advantage of Bolboschoenus was measured as the ratio of the production of Isoetes in mixture versus monoculture. The results showed that Isoetes was always outcompeted by Bolboschoenus. However, the competitive advantage of Bolboschoenus on Isoetes, was more related to hydrology than to soil richness. The competitive advantage of Bolboschoenus was very high in wet and flooded conditions and very low in dry conditions. This situation may lead to the extinction, medium-term, of the populations of I. setacea. The introduction of ovine grazing or of cut back practices in temporary pools could reduce the B. maritimus biomass and help toward the conservation of I. setacea populations. Guest editors: B. Oertli, R. Cereghino, A. Hull & R. Miracle Pond Conservation: From Science to Practice. 3rd Conference of the European Pond Conservation Network, Valencia, Spain, 14–16 May 2008     

The distribution, natural habitats and availability of wild cereals in relation to their domestication in the Near East: multiple events, multiple centres

In this article we examine the natural habitats and distribution of the six wild cereals: Triticum urartu (wild urartu wheat), T. boeoticum aegilopoides (single-grained wild einkorn), T. boeoticum thaoudar (two-grained wild einkorn), T. dicoccoides (wild emmer wheat), Secale spp. (wild ryes) and Hordeum spontaneum (wild barley). A comparison of late Pleistocene/early Holocene archaeobotanical assemblages in the Near East with present-day distributions of wild cereals shows a good correlation. The regional variation in the archaeobotanical cereal assemblages and the ensuing domestication provide evidence that different cereal species were domesticated independently in different areas. Some sites were not situated near wild cereal habitats and a few were located outside the limits of distribution, even accounting for moister climatic conditions. I argue here that current models which try to explain the shift to farming have tended to over-emphasize the effect of the Younger Dryas climatic change. First, it would have had only a minor effect on cereal availability. Secondly, agriculture appears to have been established after the Younger Dryas. Thirdly, there is no evidence for a single centre of origin; agriculture arose in widely separated geographic and climatic regions. And fourthly, agriculture depends on stable climatic conditions which were not established until after the Younger Dryas.     

The genus Bolboschoenus in Iran: taxonomy and distribution

A revision of the Iranian Bolboschoenus was made based on studies of herbarium material and cultivated plants. Fruit features (fruit shape and pericarp anatomy) were used as the main distinguishing characters; style branching, inflorescence structure and the colour of floral scales were considered as accompanying distinguishing characters. The following taxa were recognized: Bolboschoenus glaucus (Lam.) S. G. Sm., B. affinis (Roth) Drobov, B. schmidii (Raymond) Holub, B. planiculmis (F. Schmidt) T. V. Egorova and B. maritimus (L.) Palla. Taxonomical difficulties, especially in the B. affinis group and B. maritimus are discussed. Bolboschoenus glaucus was found in all of the phytogeographical regions of Iran, and it is more frequent than any other Bolboschoenus species. Bolboschoenus planiculmis is very rare in the Irano–Turanian and Hyrcanian regions and grows only in human‐influenced habitats; it might be introduced as a weed in rice fields. Bolboschoenus maritimus, B. affinis and B. schmidii occur in the Irano–Turanian region only rarely. Bolboschoenus maritimus reaches the southeastern border of its distribution area in this region. All these species typically grow at higher altitudes. Great morphological variability in inflorescence structure was found in some species (especially in B. glaucus), which may be partly explained as a response to habitat conditions and partly by genotypic diversity.     

Phylogenetic relationships of the populations of Iranolacerta brandtii (de Filippi, 1863) (Squamata: Lacertidae) recently found in Eastern Anatolia,Turkey

The Persian Lizard, Iranolacerta brandtii, was until recently considered to be restricted to north-western Iran (Azerbaijan and Esfahan provinces). However, two recent studies have revealed the existence of populations in Eastern Anatolia, extending the range of this species for about 230?km westwards. The fragmented distribution of this species has been considered to be a consequence of the climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene and Holocene, which created events of alternating contact and isolation of populations in distinct glacial refugia. According to our obtained genealogy derived from three mitochondrial fragments (12S rRNA, 16S rRNA and cytb), the Turkish specimens cluster together but form an independent clade, sister to the individuals from Tabriz in Iran. The separation of these two clades is concurrent with the cladogenesis between the Esfahan and Ardabil clades, estimated to have taken place during the late Holocene.     

In the Footprints of Our Ancestors: An Overview of the Hominid Track Record

Hominid footprints are particularly appealing and evocative of the living activity of our ancestors. The most famous and oldest (Late Pliocene, ca. 3.7 Ma) hominid footprints, from Laetoli in East Africa, have been attributed, with some uncertainly, to genus Homo or Australopithecus. The African track record also yields Early Pleistocene (～1.5 Ma) tracks attributable to Homo erectus. The only well-documented Middle Pleistocene tracks (age ～325,000-385,000 yrs) are reported from Italy and presumably represent a pre-Homo sapiens species.

The oldest Late Pleistocene tracks (～117,000 yrs), from southern Africa, may represent modern humans. However, the majority of Late Pleistocene sites are European, associated with caves in Romania, Greece, France and elsewhere, where hominid track preservation is often of high quality. Dates range from ～10,000 to ～62,000 BP Cavesite mammal tracks are almost exclusively those of carnivores, thus representing a distinctive underground ecology. Late Pleistocene open air sites are reported from widely scattered locations in Africa, Turkey, Tibet, Korea, Australia and even in the New World (Chile, Argentina and Mexico).

Early to Middle Holocene sites (> ～4,000 yrs BP) mainly occupy riparian, lacustrine, estuarine and littoral settings where the ichnofaunas are dominated by ungulates and shorebirds. Among these sites from England, Nicaragua, Argentina and Mexico and the United States, a few have been described in some detail. Younger Holocene sites are frequently associated with specified cultural periods (e.g., Neolithic, Bronze Age) or specific indigenous cultures, where supplemental archeological evidence may be directly associated with the footprint evidence.

At most surficial and some subterranean hominid tracksites, mammal and/or bird tracks are quite common and of use in creating a paleoecological picture of local faunas. The global distribution of human and hominid tracks is consistent with body fossil evidence and the record of archeological, cultural artifacts. However, in a few cases tracks suggest colonization of certain regions (Tibetan Plateau and the New World) earlier than previously thought. Tracks also give clues to behavior, age and health status of the trackmakers.     

Ecological evolution of ebracteates section of hydrophilic genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Typha</Emphasis> L.

Reconstruction of the ecological evolution of the species of the ebracteatae section of genus Typha L. since the Eocene is proposed. The Typha and Engleria (Leonova) Tzvel. sections originated from different geological periods and in different regions of Eurasia. The explosion of the Typha section dated from the Poltava flora, while the Engleria section formed under the severe conditions of Arcto-Tertiary flora of East Siberia. The West Siberian Sea played a significant role in the ecological evolution of the sections. Taxonomic diversity as well as the sizes of areas of the investigated sections, with cold snaps established in Pliocene, resulted in exhaustion and insularization in the Pleistocene. The outlined trend toward convergence in the evolution of the sections of genus Typha was found in Holocene.     

Chromosome numbers within the genusBolboschoenus in Central Europe

Two chromosome numbers n=54, n=55 were found inBolboschoenus plants studied from Central Europe (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland) and coastal regions of Europe (the Netherlands, Sweden). The number n=55 is typical forB. maritimus subsp.maritimus with narrow fruits and mostly also forB. maritimus subsp.compactus; the number n=54 characterizesB. planiculmis auct. The morphological type ofB. maritimus subsp.maritimus with wide fruits represents a stable taxon occurring in freshwater habitats throughout Europe. Its variation in chromosome numbers (both n=54, n=55) indicates a possible hybrid origin, probably resulting from hybridization betweenB. maritimus subsp.maritimus with narrow fruits andB. planiculmis auct. Spontaneous hybridization betweenBolboschoenus taxa in the regions with mixed populations may explain the origin of the intermediate morphological and anatomical characters of plants from some localities and the deviations in chromosome numbers.     

Desert rocks as plant refugia in the Near East

The outcrops of smooth-faced rocks in Near Eastern deserts function as refugia for plants that do not fit the present local climate. They have survived in the area from periods when the continuous extensions of the moister climate enabled their penetration from the Mediterranean zone. The largest Mediterranean enclave in Near Eastern deserts and steppes is the sandstone and limestone outcrops at the upper escarpments of the southwestern Jordanian plateau, between At Tafila and Ras en Naqb, including the famous Petra and Wadi Dana. Hundreds of Mediterranean relict species and dozens of endemic species coexist with steppe and desert species in the crevices of these rocks. In this article I discuss the ecology, phytogeography, and distribution of this special habitat in Jordan, the Sinai, and Israel; and I compare the influence on past and present floras of climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene and Holocene in the Near East and Africa.     

Survival and long-term maintenance of tertiary trees in the Iberian Peninsula during the Pleistocene: first record of Aesculus L. (Hippocastanaceae) in Spain

The Italian and Balkan peninsulas have been places traditionally highlighted as Pleistocene glacial refuges. The Iberian Peninsula, however, has been a focus of controversy between geobotanists and palaeobotanists as a result of its exclusion from this category on different occasions. In the current paper, we synthesise geological, molecular, palaeobotanical and geobotanical data that show the importance of the Iberian Peninsula in the Western Mediterranean as a refugium area. The presence of Aesculus aff. hippocastanum L. at the Iberian site at Cal Guardiola (Tarrasa, Barcelona, NE Spain) in the Lower–Middle Pleistocene transition helps to consolidate the remarkable role of the Iberian Peninsula in the survival of tertiary species during the Pleistocene. The palaeodistribution of the genus in Europe highlights a model of area abandonment for a widely-distributed species in the Miocene and Pliocene, leading to a diminished and fragmentary presence in the Pleistocene and Holocene on the southern Mediterranean peninsulas. Aesculus fossils are not uncommon within the series of Tertiary taxa. Many appear in the Pliocene and suffer a radical impoverishment in the Lower–Middle Pleistocene transition. Nonetheless some of these tertiary taxa persisted throughout the Pleistocene and Holocene up to the present in the Iberian Peninsula. Locating these refuge areas on the Peninsula is not an easy task, although areas characterised by a sustained level of humidity must have played an predominant role.     

Systematic Rearrangement of Korean <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scirpus</Emphasis> L. s.l. (Cyperaceae) as Inferred from Nuclear ITS and Chloroplast <Emphasis Type="Italic">rbcL</Emphasis> Sequences

The genus Scirpus L. s.l. (Cyperaceae) has been accepted as a polyphyletic taxon by most plant taxonomists. This genus was separated into different genera by several different authors: Scirpus s. str., Trichophorum Pers., Bolboschoenus (Asch.) Palla, Schoenoplectus (Rchb.) Palla, and Schoenoplectiella Lye. The heterogeneity of Korean Scirpus s.l. has not yet been studied. We examined 17 taxa of Korean Scirpus s.l. by morphological characters and phylogenetic analyses based on nuclear ITS and chloroplast rbcL sequences. Phylogenetic analyses using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian method provided sufficient resolution. The phylogeny revealed the polyphyly of Korean Scirpus s.l. with five distinct clades. These clades correspond to Bolboschoenus, Schoenoplectus s.str., and Schoenoplectiella, Scirpus s.str., and Trichophorum, respectively. These five genera were delimited in terms of the morphology of tuber, bract, and inflorescence. By virtue of our findings, we suggest that the 17 taxa of Korean Scirpus s.l. should be placed into five genera as follows: Bolboschoenus (two species), Schoenoplectus (three species), Schoenoplectiella (six species), Scirpus s.str. (five species), and Trichophorum (one species).     

Ancient DNA sequences point to a large loss of mitochondrial genetic diversity in the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) since the Pleistocene

Prior to the Holocene, the range of the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) spanned from France to the Northwest Territories of Canada. Although its distribution subsequently contracted to the steppes of Central Asia, historical records indicate that it remained extremely abundant until the end of the Soviet Union, after which its populations were reduced by over 95%. We have analysed the mitochondrial control region sequence variation of 27 ancient and 38 modern specimens, to assay how the species’ genetic diversity has changed since the Pleistocene. Phylogenetic analyses reveal the existence of two well‐supported, and clearly distinct, clades of saiga. The first, spanning a time range from >49 500 ¹⁴C ybp to the present, comprises all the modern specimens and ancient samples from the Northern Urals, Middle Urals and Northeast Yakutia. The second clade is exclusive to the Northern Urals and includes samples dating from between 40 400 to 10 250 ¹⁴C ybp. Current genetic diversity is much lower than that present during the Pleistocene, an observation that data modelling using serial coalescent indicates cannot be explained by genetic drift in a population of constant size. Approximate Bayesian Computation analyses show the observed data is more compatible with a drastic population size reduction (c. 66–77%) following either a demographic bottleneck in the course of the Holocene or late Pleistocene, or a geographic fragmentation (followed by local extinction of one subpopulation) at the Holocene/Pleistocene transition.     

Late Pleistocene and Holocene chamois in Italy

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Origins of the cultivation oflathyrus sativus andL. cicera (fabaceae)

Most of the early and rich archaeobotanical finds ofLathyrus sect.Cicercula, particularly those of the most ancient periods, came from the Balkan peninsula. It has been found that cultivation ofL. sativus began there in the early Neolithic period, around 6000 b.c.e., as a result of the expansion of Near Eastern agriculture of annuals into the region. This, in turn, encouraged development of a greater variety of legumes by the domestication of an additional native species. Similarly, it is suggested that domestication ofL. cicera in southern France and the Iberian peninsula occurred only after the introduction of agriculture into the area. Cultivation of these two closely related species in adjacent regions led to the raising of a mixed crop in many ancient fields. Lathyrus sativus may perhaps be the first crop domesticated in Europe.     

The Chacoan peccary,Catagonus wagneri (Mammalia,Tayassuidae), in the late Pleistocene (northern Uruguay,South America): paleoecological and paleobiogeographic considerations

Catagonus wagneri has the most restricted geographical distribution among extant Tayassuidae and inhabited semi-arid thorny forests of dry Chaco in Paraguay, Bolivia and Argentina. Until now, C. wagneri has only been recorded in archaeological, pre-Hispanic deposits from the Santiago del Estero Province, Argentina. A new partially complete skull from the Sopas Formation (Late Pleistocene; Uruguay) is identified as C. wagneri. This is the only fossil record of the species which extends its biochron until the late Pleistocene, and the first one substantially far from its current range; the first fossil record of the species in Uruguay; the most complete fossil material of the species; and it provides relevant ecological and climatic information. According to the ecological and climatic available information of C. wagneri, the presence of this mammal in the late Pleistocene of northern Uruguay indicates a warm climate and arid to semi-arid environments. Even though not associated with the fossil remains of C. wagneri, some mammals included in the sedimentary levels of the Sopas Formation also suggest arid to semi-arid environments. Climatic changes, in particular in the late Pleistocene and Holocene, could be invoked to explain modifications of its geographic range.http://zoobank.org/ECF04BCF-8246-4F11-AAB8-5FAA9F437BDA     

Morphological studies on the nutlet of Turkish Cyclotrichium Manden. & Scheng. (Lamiaceae)

Morphological characters of the nutlets of Cyclotrichium Manden. & Scheng. in Turkey were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The genus Cyclotrichium is represented by six species in Turkey, of which two are endemic for Turkey. Nutlet morphology of the species was studied using stereoscopic microscopy and SEM, and the features were described and illustrated. Nutlet morphology of the examined specimens exhibits some variation in size, shape and sculpture. Nutlets range from 1.1 to 2.0 mm in length and 0.5 to 1.0 mm in width and are elliptic, oblong to ovoid and trigonous in shape. Nutlet sculpture can be divided into two main types: distinctly or weakly reticulate pattern in C. niveum, C. origanifolium, C. longiflorum and rounded cell arrangement in the remaining species. Micromorphological characters could be useful in solving taxonomic problems of Cyclotrichium.