Gastrointestinal responses to feeding in a frequently feeding colubrid snake (Natrix maura)

Ectotherm vertebrates show physiological mechanisms that reduce metabolic costs during prolonged fasting. Once feeding, these animals adopt a wide variety of metabolic responses such as changes in gastrointestinal organ masses. Up-regulatory responses after feeding have been widely explored in infrequently feeding snakes like pythons, whereas few studies have been devoted to frequently feeding snakes. In this study, we have considered the gastrointestinal responses after feeding in a frequent feeder, the viperine snake Natrix maura, in the Ebro Delta rice fields. In this habitat, viperine snakes are exposed to long periods of food deprivation due to the lack of available prey as a consequence of the man-induced rice cycle. We weighed prey items and full gut masses, and measured length of combined esophagus and stomach, and intestine of viperine snakes belonging to a wide range of sizes. Snakes concentrate foraging activity when rice fields were flooded. In this period, gut masses increased. Likewise, intestines increased in length during the feeding period, which suggests that viperine snakes probably experience a postfeeding hypertrophy of their small intestines that contributes to their larger length. Once the intestine length was corrected for the snake size, it was shown that adults present longer intestines than immature snakes, reflecting an increase in the posterior part of the body linked to the gonads development. This study contributes to explore the physiological responses to feeding in frequently feeding snakes modelled by abrupt shifts of food availability.     

Southern stingray (Dasyatis americana) feeding on lancelets (Branchiostoma floridae)

A southern stingray from the shallow sand flats of Tampa Bay, Florida, had its gut filled almost exclusively with lancelets. The absence of small lancelets from the gut contents indicated a pharyngeal sieving mechanism by the ray.     

Social feeding decisions in horses (Equus caballus)

Like many other herbivores, in a natural environment equids feed on rather evenly distributed resources. However, the vegetation in their vast habitats constantly changes. If food is plentiful only little competition occurs over food, and in non-competitive situations domestic horses tend to return to the same feeding site until it is overgrazed. In contrast, they compete over limited food for which the social status of the individuals appears to be important. Especially in ruminants several studies have proved an influence of social organisations, rank, sex and the depletion of feeding sites on the feeding behaviour of individuals. However, it is not yet understood whether and how social aspects affect horses' feeding decisions. Curiosity about the influence of social rank on the horses' feeding decisions between two, equally with high-quality surplus food-filled buckets placed in different social feeding conditions, led us to create the test below. The observer horses were alternately tested with a dominant and a subordinate demonstrator placed in one of the three different positions. We conclude that domestic horses use social cognition and strategic decision making in order to decide where to feed in a social feeding situation. When possible they tend to return to the same, continuously supplied feeding site and switch to an "avoidance tendency" in the presence of dominant horses or when another horse is already feeding there. Thus, the social rank and the position of conspecifics affect the feeding strategy of horses.     

Specialized pelagic feeding by Erpobdella montezuma (Hirudinea)

The pelagic amphipod, Hyalella montezuma comprised nearly 90% of the diet of the leech, Erpobdella montezuma in the near thermally constant environment of Montezuma Well, Arizona. This restricted diet, confirmed by both gut content and serological analyses, occurred even though other potential prey were abundant throughout the year in the pelagic column, littoral vegetation and sediments. Seasonal electivity indices for this pelagic prey species were ≥0.9. It is suggested that the highly predictable environmental conditions in Montezuma Well have contributed to this very close predator–prey relationship.     

The feeding ecology of Axiothella rubrocincta (Johnson) (Polychaeta: Maldanidae)

The feeding ecology of Axiothella rubrocincta (Johnson) from Tomales Bay, California, is described. This worm inhabits a U-shaped tube of agglutinated sand grains and mucus. Morphological adaptations such as nuchal and anal plaques prevent the tube from becoming clogged. Foreign debris entering the tube is either consumed or incorporated into the tube wall. The proboscis and notosetae are probably used to clean the tube wall. A. rubrocincta combines feeding and burrowing activities to form the funnel and complete the tube: it does not ingest sediment while burrowing. Organic matter deposited into the funnel is buried there by sand slides originating at the rim of the funnel. The concentration of organic matter within the funnel is significantly higher than for non-funnel sediments. A. rubrocincta consumes food from the upper 2 cm of the substratum and is 4.6% efficient as a depositfeeder. It also feeds within the funnel and can ingest large quantities of food. This feeding process is described. A. rubrocincta irrigates its tube at a rate of 5.1 ml sea water/g/h while feeding, and briefly reverses this current to a rate of 0.1 ml/g/h when defaecating. The rhythmic activity patterns are integrated: the mean defaecation and inverse pumping time is 14.4 min at 15 ± 1 C.     

Hard-object feeding in sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) and interpretation of early hominin feeding ecology

Morphology of the dentofacial complex of early hominins has figured prominently in the inference of their dietary adaptations. Recent theoretical analysis of craniofacial morphology of Australopithecus africanus proposes that skull form in this taxon represents adaptation to feeding on large, hard objects. A modern analog for this specific dietary specialization is provided by the West African sooty mangabey, Cercocebus atys. This species habitually feeds on the large, exceptionally hard nuts of Sacoglottis gabonensis, stereotypically crushing the seed casings using their premolars and molars. This type of behavior has been inferred for A. africanus based on mathematical stress analysis and aspects of dental wear and morphology. While postcanine megadontia, premolar enlargement and thick molar enamel characterize both A. africanus and C. atys, these features are not universally associated with durophagy among living anthropoids. Occlusal microwear analysis reveals complex microwear textures in C. atys unlike those observed in A. africanus, but more closely resembling textures observed in Paranthropus robustus. Since sooty mangabeys process hard objects in a manner similar to that proposed for A. africanus, yet do so without the craniofacial buttressing characteristic of this hominin, it follows that derived features of the australopith skull are sufficient but not necessary for the consumption of large, hard objects. The adaptive significance of australopith craniofacial morphology may instead be related to the toughness, rather than the hardness, of ingested foods.     

Nutrition and feeding of yellow perch (Perca flavescens)

Yellow perch ( Perca flavescens ) have become one of the focal points in aquaculture in the Great Lakes region of the United States. In this paper, we reviewed existing information on nutrition of yellow perch and identified critical areas in need of development. Yellow perch are small at hatching (4–7 mm total length), and are difficult to feed. Zooplankton cultures remain the only viable means of mass propagation, but larvae can be trained to accept formulated feeds in ponds at the age of 30–45 days. Few nutritional requirements exist for yellow perch, thus there are no diets formulated specifically for this species. The current recommendations are use of feeds formulated for trout and salmon. Ongoing research efforts are underway that will improve our ability to feed yellow perch at all life history stages.     

Evolution of cave suspension feeding in Protodrilidae (Annelida)

Protodrilidae belongs in a lineage that until now entirely consisted of deposit‐feeding, highly adapted interstitial annelids. Except for a pair of anterior palps, all protodrilids lack appendages, parapodia and chaetae; and have slender bodies adapted to glide between the sand grains by ciliary motion. The first exception to these characteristics is Megadrilus pelagicus n. sp. inhabiting the water column of the anchialine La Corona cave system in Lanzarote. Its morphology and evolutionary history are here investigated by combining observations from in vivo video recordings and advanced microscopy with phylogenetic analyses. Our studies revealed a unique pelagic, suspension feeding behaviour attained by its long ciliated palps in combination with an autopomorphic dorsal ciliated keel and several longitudinal and transverse ciliary bands. Phylogenetic analyses recovered Megadrilus pelagicus n. sp. nested within Protodrilidae indicating that its unique traits are derived within the family. These traits are traced in the tree topologies in correlation to cave colonization. The evolution of these traits can be functionally explained by the different demands of a pelagic suspension feeding strategy compared to the ancestral deposit‐feeding guild of the family. The origin of this suspension feeding strategy was presumably favoured by the partial isolation of the anchialine ecosystem, connected to the sea only through the highly porous volcanic subterranean bedrock. This crevicular connection limits the amount of predators and turbulence in the cave, but allows continuous water flow into the system carrying organic particles, which is the main source of food when photosynthetic primary production does not occur and sedimentation is limited. These conditions may select for pelagic suspension feeding as the most feasible life‐strategy in anchialine caves, which the dominance of pelagic, suspension feeding crustaceans and annelids in anchialine cave assemblages may also reflect. For species of ancestrally deposit‐feeding lineages entering the cave system, such as the annelid families Protodrilidae and Nerillidae, an adaptive‐shift from interstitial to crevicular habitats seemingly correlates with dramatic morphological changes and speciation. The dramatic changes observed in these primarily interstitial lineages compared to their relatives, point to alternative adaptive evolutionary pathways related to ecological fitness contrary to the previously proposed theories focusing on geological or stochastic processes.     

Deposit feeding in Abra tenuis (Bivalvia: Tellinacea)

Deposit feeding in Abra tenuis is described in terms of the size of particles utilized.
Material is collected by the inhalant siphon performing a circular motion sucking in sediment from beneath and on the surface.
The size distribution of silica admitted into the mantle cavity is described and shown to be controlled by physical parameters. The density of a particle does not affect its uptake by the inhalant siphon. The size distribution of the sediment affects the size distribution of particles admitted to the mantle cavity.
No selection of material for ingestion in terms of size occurs after it has been taken into the mantle cavity. Thus the range of material ingested is ultimately controlled by a physical parameter, the inhalant opening.     

Suction feeding in orchid bees (Apidae: Euglossini)

Energy flux during nectar feeding is maximized at an intermediate sugar concentration, the value of which depends on the morphology of the feeding apparatus and the modality of fluid feeding. Biomechanical models predict that a shift from capillary-based lapping to suction feeding will lead to a decrease in this optimal sugar concentration. Here, I demonstrate that the four major genera of orchid bees (Apidae: Euglossini) are suction feeders and provide experimental evidence that the feeding optimum for one species, Euglossa imperialis, falls below the optimum for bee taxa that lap.     

Effect of previous feeding by Falconia intermedia (Hemiptera: Miridae) on subsequent feeding activity on the invasive shrub Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)

After initially building up to high densities, populations of a promising biological control agent, Falconia intermedia (Distant) (Hemiptera: Miridae), imported to control the invasive plant Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) in South Africa, disappeared at almost all release sites in the Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces. In an attempt to explain this phenomenon, laboratory trials were conducted to determine the effect of previous feeding on the subsequent performance of F. intermedia on L. camara varieties from two of the Eastern Cape release sites; Lyndhurst Farm and Whitney Farm. F. intermedia feeding damage, number of adults, number of nymphs and oviposition on Whitney Farm, L. camara plants were 40.8% (p<0.001), 106% (p<0 .001), 81.5% (p <0.001) and 80% (p<0.001) higher, respectively, than on Lyndhurst Farm, indicating the superior suitability and quality of Whitney Farm plants for F. intermedia performance. A defence response was observed by plants from Lyndhurst Farm that were previously fed on (i.e. induced). The induced plants had significantly lower F. intermedia feeding damage (21.4% less, p=0.007), numbers of adults (187.5% less, p=0.034), numbers of nymphs (110% less, p=0.071) and oviposition (99.8% less, p=0.021) than plants that were not previously fed on. The defence responses were elicited and expressed throughout the plant in both damaged and undamaged leaves within five weeks after insect release (rapidly induced response). The significant decrease in herbivore performance suggests that some L. camara varieties possess factors that enable them to resist subsequent feeding activity, offering us some understanding of one of the factors that might have contributed to the failure of F. intermedia in South Africa.     

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) feeding on lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus) in northern Norway

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Norwegian waters have long been known to rely on Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) as a main prey resource. However, research almost exclusively conducted at seasonal herring grounds may have biased studies away from detecting other potentially significant prey species. Since 2013, dedicated research efforts have focused on monitoring killer whale occurrence and foraging ecology throughout the year in northern Norway. This study presents results on site-fidelity of photographically identified individuals, predation records and behavioral patterns from five spring seasons (March–April) in 2014–2018 in Andfjord, northern Norway. A minimum number of 75 adult and subadult killer whales (out of a catalog of 971 individuals) returned seasonally to the study area for foraging and residency for up to six weeks. Lumpfish (or lumpsucker, Cyclopterus lumpus) was the only type of prey identified (based on molecular or visual identification) on 22 predation events from 2016 (n = 4), 2017 (n = 2) and 2018 (n = 16). Spatial group cohesion observed when foraging was a potential adaptation for efficiently hunting this prey species. These whales were also encountered at herring wintering grounds the same years, but with different group sizes. Such behavioral adaptations suggested intraannual switching between prey resources and foraging strategies.     

Bemisia tabaci （Hemiptera： Aleyrodidae） nymphal feeding in cotton （Gossypium hirsutum） leaves

We used brightfield electron microscopy （BEM）, differential interference contrast microscopy （DICM）, scanning electron microscopy （SEM）, transmission electron microscopy （TEM）, and confocal laser scanning microscopy （CLSM） to investigate the stylet pathways of Bemisia tabaci during nymphal feeding behavior in cotton leaves beginning with penetration of the abaxial leaf surface and ending with stylets in sieve tubes in phloem tissues. Most nymphal stylets within salivary sheaths penetrating leaf tissues made complex turns and developed more than one salivary sheath branch before ending in sieve tubes. The external morphology of the salivary sheaths and their routes between and through leaf cells are described during the present study. Results showed the presence of the stylet within the sieve tubes. B. tabaci nymphs may remove stylets and feed in different sieve tubes. Ten short movies showing the progression of the stylet penetrations from adaxial surface to the sieve tubes are attached to Figures 8-15. The report and movies can be viewed from the internet. Download the movies to a local drive in your computer first for fast upload. The movies are posted on the website http：//www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm？docid=14629. The movies can be used as a teaching aid in biology classes.     

Pre location by clownfish (Amphiprion perideraion) larvae feeding on rotifers (Brachionus plicatilis)

Prey location by clownfish (Amphiprion perideraion) larvae feedingon rotifers was accurately characterized. Cruise predator cloworishlarvae locate prey throughout a threedimensional search space,not only on the boundaries of this space as previously predicted.The search space ranged from 0 to 120° away from the lengthaxis of the fish in the horizontal plane and from 0 to 150°in the transverse plane. The boundaries of the search spacewere 1.3 body lengths away along the axis of the fish and 1body length away to the sides and above. First-feeding clownfishlarvae have well-developed visual acuity and binocular vision.     

Pursuit plunging by northern gannets (Sula bassana) feeding on capelin (Mallotus villosus)

Northern gannets (Sula bassana) are considered to obtain prey usually by rapid, vertical, shallow plunge dives. In order to test this contention and investigate underwater foraging behaviour, we attached two types of data-logging systems to 11 parental northern gannets at Funk Island in the North-Wiest Atlantic. We documented, for the first time to the authors' knowledge, gannets performing long, flat-bottomed, U-shaped dives that involved underwater wing propulsion as well as rapid, shallow, V-shaped dives. The median and maximum dive depths and durations were 4.6 and 22.0 m and 8 and 38 s, respectively. Short, shallow dives were usually V-shaped and dives deeper than 8 m and longer than 10 s were usually U-shaped, including a period at constant depth (varying between 4 and 28s with median 8s). Diving occurred throughout the daylight period and deepest dives were performed during late morning. On the basis of motion sensors in the loggers and food collections from telemetered birds, we concluded that extended, deep dives were directed at deep schools of capelin, a small pelagic fish, and we hypothesized that V-shaped dives were aimed at larger, pelagic fishes and squids. Furthermore, these V-shaped dives allowed the birds to surprise their pelagic prey and this may be critical because the maximum swimming speeds of the prey species may exceed the maximum dive speeds of the birds.