Historical biogeography and diversification within the Neotropical parrot genus Pionopsitta (Aves: Psittacidae)

Aim We investigate spatial and temporal patterns of diversification within the Neotropical avifauna using the phylogenetic history of parrots traditionally belonging to the genus Pionopsitta Bonaparte 1854. This genus has long been of interest for those studying Neotropical biogeography and diversity, as it encompasses species that occur in most Neotropical forest areas of endemism. Location The Neotropical lowland forests in South and Central America. Methods Phylogenetic relationships were investigated for all species of the genus Pionopsitta and five other short‐tailed parrot genera using complete sequences of the mitochondrial genes cyt b and ND2 as well as 26 plumage characters. The resulting phylogeny was used to test the monophyly of the genus, investigate species limits, and as a framework for reconstructing their historical biogeography and patterns of diversification. Results We found that the genus Pionopsitta, as previously defined, is not monophyletic and thus the Chocó, Central American and Amazonian species will now have to be placed in the genus Gypopsitta. The molecular and morphological phylogenies are largely congruent, but disagree on the position of one of the Amazon basin taxa. Using molecular sequence data, we estimate that species within Gypopsitta diversified between 8.7 and 0.6 Ma, with the main divergences occurring between 3.3 and 6.4 Ma. These temporal results are compared to other taxa showing similar vicariance patterns. Main conclusions The results suggest that diversification in Gypopsitta was influenced mainly by geotectonic events, marine transgressions and river dynamics, whereas Quaternary glacial cycles of forest change seem to have played a minor role in the origination of the currently recognized species.     

Integrative taxonomy approach for analysing evolutionary history of the tribe Euseiini Chant & McMurtry (Acari: Phytoseiidae)

Phylogenetic relationships within the mite Family Phytoseiidae are little known. The presently accepted classification is based on the opinion of specialists, but not on cladistics analysis. The present paper focuses on the tribe Euseiini, containing 271 species, three subtribes and 10 genera. It aims to determine phylogenetic relationships between these taxa and test their monophyly. Molecular analysis combining six markers has been carried out for taxa we succeeded in collecting. Morphological, biogeographic and ecological data have been analysed to determine how these factors can explain the evolutionary relationships emphasized on the phylogenetic tree. Those analyses have been carried out for the taxa available for the molecular study, but also for all species of the tribe. The tribe Euseiini and the two subtribes considered are monophyletic (at least considering the available taxa), supporting the present hypothesis on Phytoseiidae classification. However, the genus Iphiseius seems to not be valid and its unique species is included in the genus Euseius. Clades that were observed within the genus Euseius do not match with recent work on species groups within this genus. It seems that some morphological features such as an insemination apparatus shape and seta length on the dorsal shield constitute some elements explaining the clusters within the genus Euseius. Biogeographic and ecological data analysis led us to hypothesize a west Gondwanian origin of the tribe Euseiini (Africa and Neotropical areas) on Rosids plants (especially of the Orders Malpiphiales and Fabales: subclass Fabidae). Further analyses are still required to (i) take into account more taxa (especially rare ones and species from the Ethiopian part), (ii) to consider more accurate morphological features through more powerful microscopic apparatus, and (iii) to associate a phylogenetic and evolutionary scenario to life traits (pollen feeders).     

Phylogenetic systematics and historical biogeography of the Neotropical electric fish Gymnotus (Teleostei: Gymnotidae)

Phylogenetic interrelationships of the Neotropical electric fish genus Gymnotus are documented from comparative study of phenotypic data. A data matrix was compiled of 113 phenotypic characters for 40 taxa, including 31 recognized Gymnotus species, six allopatric populations of G. carapo, two allopatric populations of G. coropinae, and three gymno‐tiform outgroups. MP analysis yielded 15 trees of equal length, the strict consensus of which is presented as a working hypothesis of Gymnotus interrelationships. Diagnoses are presented for 26 clades, including three species groups; the G. cylindricus group with two species restricted to Middle America, the G. pantherinus group with 12 species in South America, and the G. carapo group with 16 species in South America. The basal division of Gymnotus is between clades endemic to Middle and South America. Both the G. pantherinus and G. carapo groups include trans‐Andean sister‐taxon pairs, suggesting a minimum date for the origins of these groups in the late Middle Miocene (c. 12 Ma.). The geographically widespread species G. carapo is paraphyletic. Analysis of character state evolution shows characters of external morphology are more phylogenetically plastic and provide more phylogenetic information in recent branches than do characters of internal morphology, which themselves provide the more information in deeper branches. Nine regional species assemblages of Gymnotus are recognized, none of which is monophyletic. There are at least two independent origins of Gymnotus species in sediment rich, high conductivity, perennially hypoxic whitewater floodplains (varzea´) derived from an ancestral condition of being restricted to low conductivity non‐floodplain (terra firme) black and clearwater rivers and streams. These phylogenetic, biogeographic and ecological patterns suggest a lengthy and complex history involving numerous instances of speciation, extinction, migration and coexistence in sympatry. Evolution in Gymnotus has been a continent‐wide phenomenon; i.e. Amazonian species richness is not a consequence of strictly Amazonian processes. These patterns are similar to those of other highly diverse groups of Neotropical fishes and do not resemble those of monophyletic, rapidly generated species flocks.     

Phylogenetics and biogeography of the broad-nosed bats, genus Platyrrhinus (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae)

The Neotropical broad-nosed bats, genus Platyrrhinus, represent a well-defined monophyletic group of 14 recognized species. A recent study of morphological characters confirmed Platyrrhinus monophyly and species diagnosis, but offered little support to their intra-specific relationships. We conducted phylogenetic analyses of the genus, using dense taxonomic sampling in combination with four gene sequences representing both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA transmission systems. Our aim was to elucidate the phylogenetic structure among species, using the resulting 3341 bp of DNA. Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference analyses produced similar topologies that confirm the monophyly of the genus Platyrrhinus and strongly support many previously unrecognized groups. Paraphyly of Platyrrhinus helleri and the unclear position of P. brachycephalus in the clades were also apparent in the data. Our biogeographical analysis suggests a Brazilian Shield origin for Platyrrhinus, followed by subsequent radiations of lineages in the Amazon Basin and Andes. Secondary dispersal from Amazonian and Andean centers is responsible for the Platyrrhinus inhabiting the Guianan Shield and the Pacific lowlands and Central America, respectively.     

Mitochondrial DNA Phylogeny of the Family Cichlidae: Monophyly and Fast Molecular Evolution of the Neotropical Assemblage

A mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny of cichlid fish is presented for the most taxonomically inclusive data set compiled to date (64 taxa). 16S rDNA data establish with confidence relationships among major lineages of cichlids, with a general pattern congruent with previous morphological studies and less inclusive molecular phylogenies based on nuclear genes. Cichlids from Madagascar and India are the most basal groups of the family Cichlidae and sister to African–Neotropical cichlids. The cichlid phylogeny suggests drift-vicariance events, consistent with the fragmentation of Gondwana, to explain current biogeographic distributions. Important phylogenetic findings include the placement of the controversial genus Heterochromis basal among African cichlids, the South American genus Retroculus as the most basal taxon of the Neotropical cichlid assemblage, and the close relationship of the Neotropical genera Cichla with Astronotus rather than with the crenicichlines. Based on a large number of South American genera, the Neotropical cichlids are defined as a monophyletic assemblage and shown to harbor significantly higher levels of genetic variation than their African counterparts. Relative rate tests suggest that Neotropical cichlids have experienced accelerated rates of molecular evolution. But these high evolutionary rates were significantly higher among geophagine cichlids. Received: 18 September 1998 / Accepted: 16 December 1998     

Neotropical diversification: the effects of a complex history on diversity within the poison frog genus Dendrobates

Aim We study the Neotropical poison frogs of the genus Dendrobates Wagler, 1830 in order to clarify their phylogenetic relationships and biogeographical history. The genus Dendrobates is an excellent taxon for examining patterns of Neotropical diversification as the four major species groups appear to correspond roughly to distinct geographical regions: (1) trans‐Andean, (2) Andean foreland, (3) Brazilian Shield and (4) Guianan Shield/Central America. In order to test the agreement of five of the most prominent hypotheses of Amazonian diversification, phylogenetic patterns were examined for agreement with patterns predicted by these hypotheses. Location Central and South America Methods The phylogenetic relationships of the genus Dendrobates were examined from novel and existing (GenBank) sequences of four mitochondrial loci totalling c. 1400 bp from 40 specimens of 22 different species using maximum parsimony and Bayesian methods. Results were compared with traditional taxonomic arrangements by means of SH tests. Phylogenetic relationships and genetic distances were used to test the adequacy of various diversification hypotheses. Results Phylogenetic analyses support the restructuring of two species groups of Dendrobates and the creation of a new species group. Statistical tests of the traditional taxonomic arrangement indicate a significantly bad fit to the molecular data. This restructuring has important implications for the understanding of the historical biogeography of Dendrobates. Biogeographical patterns within this genus suggest that a complex interaction of biotic and abiotic factors since the Eocene have produced the diversity observed today. Main conclusions The current classification of Dendrobates into discrete species groups does not accurately reflect evolutionary history. Data presented here strongly support a monophyletic Brazilian Shield lineage whose members have previously been split among the quinquevittatus and tinctorius groups. Furthermore, previous attempts at elucidating the historical biogeography of this genus were compromised by incomplete sampling and conclusions drawn from a paraphyletic ingroup. Our findings demonstrate a role for numerous hypotheses of diversification (e.g. river, refuge, disturbance–vicariance) in the history of Dendrobates, supporting previous warnings about the dangers of over‐simplification in the study of Neotropical diversification.     

Higher‐level phylogenetic affinities of the Neotropical genus Mastigodryas Amaral, 1934 (Serpentes: Colubridae), species‐group definition and description of a new genus for Mastigodryas bifossatus

Most Neotropical colubrid snakes belong to a single, well‐supported lineage. Relationships between the major constituents of this clade remain. Here, we explore the phylogenetic relationships of Mastigodryas and its affinities to other Neotropical colubrid genera by combining DNA and morphological data. Analyses demonstrate that the concatenation of multiple individuals into a single terminal can mask the detection of new taxa. Further, non‐random missing data and/or taxa in some empirical datasets can bias species tree analyses more than concatenation approaches. Our results place Mastigodryas in a strongly supported clade that includes Drymarchon, Rhinobothryum, Drymoluber, Simophis and Leptodrymus. Mastigodryas bifossatus is more closely related to species of Drymoluber and Simophis than to its congeners. Thus, we erect a new genus to accommodate it and recover a monophyletic Mastigodryas. We highlight the importance of the use of morphological characters to diagnose suprageneric clades by showing that some key external and hemipenial characteristics are phylogenetically informative.     

From pampa to puna: Biogeography and diversification of a group of Neotropical obligate grassland birds (Anthus: Motacillidae)

The evolution of Neotropical birds of open landscapes remains largely unstudied. We investigate the diversification and biogeography of a group of Neotropical obligate grassland birds (Anthus: Motacillidae). We use a multilocus phylogeny of 22 taxa of Anthus to test the hypothesis that these birds radiated contemporaneously with the development of grasslands in South America. We employ the R package DDD to analyze the dynamics of Anthus diversification across time in Neotropical grasslands, explicitly testing for shifts in dynamics associated with the Miocene development of grasslands, the putative Pleistocene expansion of arid lowland biomes, and Pleistocene sundering of Andean highland grasslands. A lineage‐through‐time plot revealed increases in the number of lineages, and DDD detected shifts to a higher clade‐level carrying capacity during the late Miocene, indicating an early burst of diversification associated with grassland colonization. However, we could not corroborate the shift using power analysis, probably reflecting the small number of tips in our tree. We found evidence of a divergence at ~1 Mya between northern and southern Amazonian populations of Anthus lutescens, countering Haffer's idea of Pleistocene expansion of open biomes in the Amazon Basin. We used BioGeoBears to investigate ancestral areas and directionality of colonization of Neotropical grasslands. Members of the genus diversified into, out of, and within the Andes, within‐Andean diversification being mostly Pleistocene in origin.     

Phylogeny and cryptic diversity in geckos (Phyllopezus; Phyllodactylidae; Gekkota) from South America's open biomes

The gecko genus Phyllopezus occurs across South America's open biomes: Cerrado, Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests (SDTF, including Caatinga), and Chaco. We generated a multi-gene dataset and estimated phylogenetic relationships among described Phyllopezus taxa and related species. We included exemplars from both described Phyllopezus pollicaris subspecies, P. p. pollicaris and P. p.przewalskii. Phylogenies from the concatenated data as well as species trees constructed from individual gene trees were largely congruent. All phylogeny reconstruction methods showed Bogertia lutzae as the sister species of Phyllopezus maranjonensis, rendering Phyllopezus paraphyletic. We synonymized the monotypic genus Bogertia with Phyllopezus to maintain a taxonomy that is isomorphic with phylogenetic history. We recovered multiple, deeply divergent, cryptic lineages within P. pollicaris. These cryptic lineages possessed mtDNA distances equivalent to distances among other gekkotan sister taxa. Described P. pollicaris subspecies are not reciprocally monophyletic and current subspecific taxonomy does not accurately reflect evolutionary relationships among cryptic lineages. We highlight the conservation significance of these results in light of the ongoing habitat loss in South America's open biomes.     

Historical transoceanic dispersal of a freshwater shrimp: the colonization of the South Pacific by the genus Paratya (Atyidae)

Aim To infer the phylogenetic relationships within the freshwater shrimp genus Paratya Miers, 1882 (Atyidae) and to use these data to answer biogeographical questions about the location, timing and form of evolution of this genus in the South Pacific. Location Paratya are spread throughout various freshwater habitats in the western Pacific, with a disjunct northern range in the North Pacific (Japan, Korea, Ryukyu Islands, Siberia) and South Pacific (Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Lord Howe, Norfolk Island). Methods Specimens were obtained from throughout its range. Mitochondrial sequences of cytochrome oxidase subunit I and 16S ribosomal DNA were analysed using phylogenetic techniques to identify whether landmasses are monophyletic and what the relationships are between landmasses. Molecular clock dating methods were used to date divergences between taxa. Results Each landmass was recovered as monophyletic. Japan/Ryukyu Islands is the most basal group, followed by New Zealand. Australian specimens form a sister group to a clade made up of two groups (New Caledonia and Lord Howe/Norfolk Island). The oldest divergence within the genus (between North and South Pacific) took place 12–19 Ma. Main conclusions The geographical origin of the genus (either Gondwana or Laurasia) is unclear. Dispersal occurred between the North and South Pacific long after the split up of Gondwana. Dispersal likely explains the presence of Paratya on each landmass in the South Pacific, from continent to isolated oceanic island. This dispersal is conjectured to have taken place through oceanic currents because of the amphidromous life cycle of some taxa of Paratya, given that amphyidromy is plesiomorphic in atyid shrimp.     

Phylogeny of the túngara frog genus Engystomops (= Physalaemus pustulosus species group; Anura: Leptodactylidae)

We present a phylogeny of the Neotropical genus Engystomops (= Physalaemus pustulosus species group) based on sequences of approximately 2.4 kb of mtDNA, (12S rRNA, valine-tRNA, and 16S rRNA) and propose a phylogenetic nomenclature. The phylogeny includes all described taxa and two unnamed species. All analyses indicate that Engystomops is monophyletic and contains two basal allopatric clades. Clade I (Edentulus) includes E. pustulosus and the Amazonian E. petersi + E. cf. freibergi. Clade II (Duovox) includes all species distributed in W Ecuador and NW Peru. Brevivox, a clade of small-sized species is strongly supported within Duovox. Populations of Engystomops pustulosus fall into two well-supported clades, each of which occupies two disjunct portions of the species range. Overall, our phylogeny is congruent with most previous hypotheses. This study is among the few published species-level phylogenies of Neotropical amphibians derived from molecular datasets. A review of the proportion of new species detected by similar studies suggests that the increasing use of molecular techniques will lead to the discovery of a vast number of species of Neotropical amphibians.     

Tropical Asian species show that the Old World clade of ‘spiny solanums’ (Solanum subgenus Leptostemonum pro parte: Solanaceae) is not monophyletic

The tropical Asian taxa of the species‐rich genus Solanum (Solanaceae) have been less well studied than their highly diverse New World relatives. Most of these tropical Asian species, including the cultivated brinjal eggplant/aubergine and its wild progenitor, are part of the largest monophyletic Solanum lineage, the ‘spiny solanums’ (subgenus Leptostemonum or the Leptostemonum clade). Here we present the first phylogenetic analysis of spiny solanums that includes broad sampling of the tropical Asian species, with 42 of the 56 currently recognized species represented. Two nuclear and three plastid regions [internal transcribed spacer (ITS), waxy, ndhF‐rpL32, trnS‐trnG and trnT‐trnF] were amplified and used to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. Our analyses show that Old World spiny solanums do not resolve in a single clade, but are part of three unrelated lineages, suggesting at least three independent introductions from the New World. We identify and describe several monophyletic groups in Old World solanums that have not been previously recognized. Some of these lineages are coherent in terms of morphology and geography, whereas others show considerable morphological variation and enigmatic distribution patterns. Tropical Asia occupies a key position in the biogeography of Old World spiny solanums, with tropical Asian taxa resolved as the closest relatives of diverse groups of species from Australia and Africa.     

Evolutionary history of tree squirrels (Rodentia,Sciurini) based on multilocus phylogeny reconstruction

Pe?nerová, P. & Martínková, N. (2012). Evolutionary history of tree squirrels (Rodentia, Sciurini) based on multilocus phylogeny reconstruction. —Zoologica Scripta, 41, 211–219. Tree squirrels of the tribe Sciurini represent a group with unresolved phylogenetic relationships in gene trees. We used partial sequences of mitochondrial genes for 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, cytochrome b and d‐loop, and nuclear irbp, c‐myc exon 2 and 3 and rag1 genes to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships within the tribe, maximizing the number of analysed species. Bayesian inference analysis of the concatenated sequences revealed common trends that were similar to those retrieved with supertree reconstruction. We confirmed congruence between phylogeny and zoogeography. The first group that diverged from a common ancestor was genus Tamiasciurus, followed by Palaearctic Sciurus and Indomalayan Rheithrosciurus macrotis. Nearctic and Neotropical Sciurus species formed a monophyletic group that included Microsciurus and Syntheosciurus. Neotropical Sciurini were monophyletic with a putative exception of Syntheosciurus brochus that was included in a polychotomy with Nearctic Sciurus in supertree analyses. Our data indicate that Sciurini tree squirrels originated in the northern hemisphere and ancestors of contemporary taxa attained their current distribution through overland colonization from the nearest continent rather than through trans‐Pacific dispersal.     

Molecular phylogenetics of Atlantic Shield Platynectes diving beetles (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae): a first glance at the evolution of the genus in the Amazon Basin

Neotropical diving beetles of the genus Platynectes are distributed across Central America, the Andes and different Precambrian shields in the Amazon Basin. Species from the northern Guiana Shield form a monophyletic clade, yet the phylogenetic relationships of the eastern Atlantic Shield species remain unknown. Here, we augmented an existing molecular dataset with a species from the Atlantic Shield that was not previously sampled. We reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships and estimated divergence times to understand the evolution of lineages dwelling in this region. The newly sampled specimens from the Atlantic Shield are recovered as sister taxa to Guiana Shield species. The dating analyses suggest a split between these two lineages in the late Oligocene to mid-Miocene, contemporary with the Miocenic geological remodeling of the Amazon Basin. Additional sampling in the Atlantic and Central Brazilian Shields will be determinant to test the monophyly of Platynectes species distributed in these ancient shields, and to fully understand the biogeographical history of diving beetles in the Amazon Basin.     

Phylogenetic relationships in Nuphar (Nymphaeaceae): evidence from morphology,chloroplast DNA,and nuclear ribosomal DNA

The genus Nuphar consists of yellow-flowered waterlilies and is widely distributed in north-temperate bodies of water. Despite regular taxonomic evaluation of these plants, no explicit phylogenetic hypotheses have been proposed for the genus. We investigated phylogenetic relationships in Nuphar using morphology and sequences of the chloroplast gene matK and of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Two major lineages within Nuphar are consistently resolved with the morphological and molecular data sets. One lineage comprises New World taxa and the other represents a primarily Old World lineage. Relationships within the major lineages were poorly resolved by morphology and ITS, yet certain relationships were elucidated by all analyses. Most notable is the strong support for a monophyletic lineage of dwarf taxa and the alliance of the North American N. microphylla with the Eurasian taxa. Minor discordance between the independent cladograms is accounted for by hybridization. The common taxonomic practice of uniting all North American and Eurasian taxa under one species is not supported phylogenetically.     

Molecular systematics and historical biogeography of tree boas (Corallus spp.)

Inferring the evolutionary and biogeographic history of taxa occurring in a particular region is one way to determine the processes by which the biodiversity of that region originated. Tree boas of the genus Corallus are an ancient clade and occur throughout Central and South America and the Lesser Antilles, making it an excellent group for investigating Neotropical biogeography. Using sequenced portions of two mitochondrial and three nuclear loci for individuals of all recognized species of Corallus, we infer phylogenetic relationships, present the first molecular analysis of the phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic C. cropanii, develop a time-calibrated phylogeny, and explore the biogeographic history of the genus. We found that Corallus diversified within mainland South America, via over-water dispersals to the Lesser Antilles and Central America, and via the traditionally recognized Panamanian land bridge. Divergence time estimates reject the South American Caribbean-Track as a general biogeographic model for Corallus and implicate a role for events during the Oligocene and Miocene in diversification such as marine incursions and the uplift of the Andes. Our findings also suggest that recognition of the island endemic species, C. grenadensis and C. cookii, is questionable as they are nested within the widely distributed species, C. hortulanus. Our results highlight the importance of using widespread taxa when forming and testing biogeographic hypotheses in complex regions and further illustrate the difficulty of forming broadly applicable hypotheses regarding patterns of diversification in the Neotropical region.     

Phylogenetic relationships and biogeography of the Ipsiura cuckoo wasps (Hymenoptera: Chrysididae)

Phylogenetic studies addressing relationships among chrysidid wasps have been limited. There are no hypotheses proposed for the Neotropical lineages of Chrysidini other than the classic cladogram published in the 1990s by Kimsey and Bohart. Herein we present a cladistic analysis based on 64 morphological characters coded for 54 species of Chrysidini, 32 of them being Ipsiura and 22 representing Caenochrysis, Chrysis, Exochrysis, Gaullea, Neochrysis, and Pleurochrysis. The species of Ipsiura were recovered as monophyletic and as the sister clade of Neochrysis in all most parsimonious trees. We discuss the high plasticity of some morphological characters as evidenced by their high homoplasy in the phylogenetic results, and we clarify the main morphological changes inferred on the phylogenetic tree for this genus. The effects of the inferred homoplasy were evaluated under an implied weighting cladistic analysis, and from a probabilistic perspective with Bayesian inference. Those alternative strategies did not alter the general conclusions about the monophyly of Ipsiura or the generic relationships in Chrysidini (changes were noticed in the species‐level relationships within certain parts of Ipsiura, where low branch support was common across all approaches). Among the species groups proposed by Linsenmaier (1985), only the marginalis group was recovered as monophyletic. We also evaluated the convoluted biogeographic history of the group. The resulting historical reconstructions indicate a complicated scenario of diversification of these wasps in the Neotropics, and a close association with forested biomes is discussed.     

Areas of endemism and distribution patterns for Neotropical Piper species (Piperaceae)

Aim The study aimed to establish areas of endemism and distribution patterns for Neotropical species of the genus Piper in the Neotropical and Andean regions by means of parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) and track‐compatibility analysis. Location The study area includes the Neotropical region and the Northern Andean region (Páramo‐Punan subregion). Methods We used distribution information from herbarium specimens and recent monographic revisions for 1152 species of Piper from the Neotropics. First, a PAE was attempted in order to delimit the areas of endemism. Second, we performed a track‐compatibility analysis to establish distribution patterns for Neotropical species of Piper. Terminology for grouping Piper is based on recent phylogenetic analyses. Results The PAE yielded 104 small endemic areas for the genus Piper, 80 of which are in the Caribbean, Amazonian and Paranensis subregions of the Neotropical region, and 24 in the Páramo‐Punan subregion of the Andean region. Track‐compatibility analysis revealed 26 generalized tracks, one in the Páramo‐Punan subregion (Andean region), 19 in the Neotropical region, and six connecting the Andean and Neotropical regions. Both the generalized tracks and endemic areas indicate that distribution of Piper species is restricted to forest areas in the Andes, Amazonia, Chocó, Central America, the Guayana Shield and the Brazilian Atlantic coast. Main conclusions Piper should not be considered an Andean‐centred group as it represents two large species components with distributions centred in the Amazonian and Andean regions. Furthermore, areas of greater species richness and/or endemism are restricted to lowland habitats belonging to the Neotropical region. The distribution patterns of Neotropical species of Piper could be explained by recent events in the Neotropical region, as is the case for the track connecting Chocó and Central America, where most of the species rich groups of the genus are found. Two kinds of event could explain the biogeography of a large part of the Piper taxa with Andean–Amazonian distribution: pre‐Andean and post‐Andean events.     

Intra‐specific variability in Rhinoleucophenga punctulata populations (Diptera: Drosophilidae) from Neotropical biomes: Combined analyses of morphological and molecular data

Despite the fact that Drosophilidae is a very diverse and well‐studied taxon, the New World genus Rhinoleucophenga is yet poorly understood even in regard to species distribution and morphological variability pattern. In this sense, R. punctulata is a species widely distributed in the Neotropical region. Specimens of R. punctulata were collected from different biomes in Brazil: Pampa, Cerrado and Caatinga sensu strictu, and a southern Amazonian savannah enclave area. Geographical variations in the external body morphology and in the morphology of spermatheca were noticed among the different populations. The hypothesis that each population could be a different species was tested through molecular data. A fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxydase subunit I (COI) gene was sequenced to perform phylogenetic analyses through neighbor‐joining and Bayesian inferences. Pairwise genetic divergences of COI sequences were calculated using DNA barcode premises. The analyzed populations presented different variation levels in both morphology and molecular traits. However, new species were not proposed because the intra‐population nucleotide variations exceeded the inter‐population ones. The noticeable morphological and genetic variations revealed among the four studied populations of R. punctulata in different biomes of Brazil suggest the necessity that morphological, distributional and molecular data at the population level should be integrated into complementary datasets to better understand the biological diversity of Rhinoleucophenga through Neotropical environments.