Nature of the 1-Methyladenine-Requiring Phase in Maturation of Starfish Oocytes

Reinitiation of meiosis in starfish oocytes requires the continuous presence of 1-methyladenine (1-MeAde) in the surrounding medium for a definite period. The length of the 'hormone-dependent phase' (HDP) in Asterina pectinifera , which was defined as the time necessary for induction of 50% germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD), was found to be about 11 min at 17°C, and 8 min at 20°C. Repeated treatments for shorter periods with 1-MeAde revealed that the action of this agent was cumulative, and that stable intermediate states between the unstimulated and fully stimulated levels existed during the HDP. Measurement of the stiffness of oocytes also demonstrated this stable intermediate state. Thus, there may be a factor(s) in the cytoplasm that accumulates continuously during the HDP and triggers GVBD when it reaches a critical level(s). When dithiothreitol (DTT) was used as an artificial maturation-inducing agent, the intermediate state was far less stable, suggesting a difference in the modes of action of 1-MeAde and DTT. Isotonic CaCl₂, the Ca²⁺ ionophore (A 23187) and methylxanthines, which are known to cause increase in intracellular Ca²⁺, had additive effects with 1-MeAde. These results suggest that part of the action of 1-MeAde is to release Ca²⁺ in the oocyte cytoplasm.     

Role of Contents of the Germinal Vesicle in Male Pronuclear Development and Cleavage of Starfish Oocytes

During 1-methyladenine induced germinal vesicle breakdown, contents of the germinal vesicle of starfish oocytes are mixed with the surrounding cytoplasm. Upon injection of contents of the germinal vesicle from immature (fully grown) oocytes into enucleated and inseminated oocytes, incorporated spermatozoa were not observed to change structurally. Alternatively, after treatment of the above oocytes with 1-methyladenine, sperm asters and male pronuclei were developed and subsequent cleavage was also detected. From these results, it is concluded that both action of 1-methyladenine and participation of contents of the germinal vesicle are indispensable for male pronuclear development and subsequent cleavage.     

Cytoplasmic Maturity Revealed by the Structural Changes in Incorporated Spermatozoon during the Course of Starfish Oocyte Maturation

Immature oocytes of the starfish, Asterina pectinifera, are polyspermic. Spermatozoa can enter immature oocytes upon insemination, but the changes associated with the fertilization process in oocytes matured with 1-methyladenine (1-MeAde), such as the formation of aster and pronucleus, were not observed. After immature oocytes, previously inseminated, were matured with 1-MeAde, the formation of the sperm monaster was observed during germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD). Amphiasters and pronuclei were formed after the formation of the second polar body. The acquisition by oocytes of the capacity to undergo the normal process of fertilization, therefore, occurs during the course of oocyte maturation. After injection of the cytoplasm of maturing oocytes into inseminated immature oocytes, the formation of aster and pronucleus was observed, suggesting that maturation-promoting factor (MPF) may be involved in establishing the cytoplasmic conditions (cytoplasmic maturity) necessary for the fertilization process to occur. In contrast, when enucleated, inseminated halves of immature oocytes were treated with 1-MeAde, only monasters were formed, while in the nucleated halves both amphiasters and sperm pronuclei were formed. Thus, germinal vesicle material is required for the formation of amphiaster and sperm pronucleus but not for the formation of monaster. It is possible that the amount of MPF produced in enucleated halves was sufficient only for the formation of the monaster but not for the formation of the amphiaster and pronucleus, since it has been previously established that germinal vesicle material is necessary for the amplification of MPF. The formation of the monaster in the enucleated halves at a time corresponding to GVBD in nucleated controls suggests that the amount of MPF needed for this event is rather small. For the induction of subsequent fertilization process, large amounts of MPF may be required to establish the necessary cytoplasmic conditions, although other possible role of nuclear material is not excluded.     

Guanine Nucleotides in the Meiotic Maturation of Starfish Oocytes: Regulation of the Actin Cytoskeleton and of Ca2+ Signaling

Background

Starfish oocytes are arrested at the first prophase of meiosis until they are stimulated by 1-methyladenine (1-MA). The two most immediate responses to the maturation-inducing hormone are the quick release of intracellular Ca²⁺ and the accelerated changes of the actin cytoskeleton in the cortex. Compared with the later events of oocyte maturation such as germinal vesicle breakdown, the molecular mechanisms underlying the early events involving Ca²⁺ signaling and actin changes are poorly understood. Herein, we have studied the roles of G-proteins in the early stage of meiotic maturation.

Methodology/Principal Findings

By microinjecting starfish oocytes with nonhydrolyzable nucleotides that stabilize either active (GTPγS) or inactive (GDPβS) forms of G-proteins, we have demonstrated that: i) GTPγS induces Ca²⁺ release that mimics the effect of 1-MA; ii) GDPβS completely blocks 1-MA-induced Ca²⁺; iii) GDPβS has little effect on the amplitude of the Ca²⁺ peak, but significantly expedites the initial Ca²⁺ waves induced by InsP₃ photoactivation, iv) GDPβS induces unexpectedly striking modification of the cortical actin networks, suggesting a link between the cytoskeletal change and the modulation of the Ca²⁺ release kinetics; v) alteration of cortical actin networks with jasplakinolide, GDPβS, or actinase E, all led to significant changes of 1-MA-induced Ca²⁺ signaling.

Conclusions/Significance

Taken together, these results indicate that G-proteins are implicated in the early events of meiotic maturation and support our previous proposal that the dynamic change of the actin cytoskeleton may play a regulatory role in modulating intracellular Ca²⁺ release.     

Asymmetry in the Mitotic Spindle Induced by the Attachment to the Cell Surface during Maturation in the Starfish Oocyte

In order to study the dynamic behavior of the mitotic apparatus leading to unequal cleavage, we investigated the distribution of mitotic microtubules (MTs) during maturation division of starfish oocytes. When the mitotic apparatus attached to the cell surface at metaphase, in both the first and second meiotic division, it is revealed, by immunofluorescence, that the MT distribution in the spindle, as well as in the aster, became asymmetric. MTs in the peripheral half spindle increased in number compared with those in the inner half spindle. Furthermore, these results were confirmed in the living cell by polarization microscopy; shortly after the attachment, the birefringence retardation of the peripheral half spindle became greater than that of the inner one, and the difference increased with time during anaphase. By inhibiting the attachment of the mitotic apparatus by means of centrifugation, the MT distribution maintained a symmetrical pattern through mitosis. These results suggest that the attachment of the mitotic apparatus to the cell surface induces the asymmetrical distribution of MTs not only in the aster but also in the spindle. Such a rich distribution of MTs in the peripheral half spindle appears to ensure chromosome exclusion into the polar body by anchoring them firmly to the cell surface of the animal pole.     

Oocyte Maturation in Starfish: Sequential Changes of Oocyte Shape Induced by 1-Methyladenine Associated with Germinal Vesicle Breakdown

Observation of the early events of starfish oocyte maturation revealed a sequential change of the oocyte shape induced by 1-methyladenine (1-MeAde). The lengths of two diameters of the whole oocyte, one parallel to the egg axis (a–v diameter) and the other which is perpendicular to a–v diameter (e diameter) were measured by taking photographs successively. About 10 min after 1–MeAde administration, a sudden decrease of the a–v diameter (shortening of oocyte) occurred followed by a sudden increase (elongation of oocyte). Germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) occurred when the a–v diameter suddenly increased. The change of the oocyte shape occurred differentially in the animal and vegital halves i.e. when the egg-axis diameter shortened the surface of the vegital pole side shrank and the surface of the animal pole side expanded. GVBD was suppressed under hypertonic conditions and facilitated under hypotonic conditions. Cytological examination of the process of GVBD revealed (1) separation of the nuclear membrane from the granular cytoplasmic mass, (2) depression of several parts of the nuclear membrane and the increase of amorphous matrix on the outside of the nuclear membrane, and (3) disappearance (fragmentation) of nuclear membrane. The morphological changes were not the same along the egg-axis temporally and spacially. These observations suggest firstly that the cytoplasm, which has been in a certain quiescent state with a certain rigidity before 1–MeAde administration, not only undergoes a decrease in stiffness but also acquires a contractile property after 1–MeAde administration, and secondly that contractile or cytoskeletal components do not evenly function or are not evenly arranged in the animal and vegital halves.     

Sequential Steps in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Particle Maturation Revealed by Alterations of Individual Gag Polyprotein Cleavage Sites

Retroviruses are produced as immature particles containing structural polyproteins, which are subsequently cleaved by the viral proteinase (PR). Extracellular maturation leads to condensation of the spherical core to a capsid shell formed by the capsid (CA) protein, which encases the genomic RNA complexed with nucleocapsid (NC) proteins. CA and NC are separated by a short spacer peptide (spacer peptide 1 [SP1]) on the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Gag polyprotein and released by sequential PR-mediated cleavages. To assess the role of individual cleavages in maturation, we constructed point mutations abolishing cleavage at these sites, either alone or in combination. When all three sites between CA and NC were mutated, immature particles containing stable CA-NC were observed, with no apparent effect on other cleavages. Delayed maturation with irregular morphology of the ribonucleoprotein core was observed when cleavage of SP1 from NC was prevented. Blocking the release of SP1 from CA, on the other hand, yielded normal condensation of the ribonucleoprotein core but prevented capsid condensation. A thin, electron-dense layer near the viral membrane was observed in this case, and mutant capsids were significantly less stable against detergent treatment than wild-type HIV-1. We suggest that HIV maturation is a sequential process controlled by the rate of cleavage at individual sites. Initial rapid cleavage at the C terminus of SP1 releases the RNA-binding NC protein and leads to condensation of the ribonucleoprotein core. Subsequently, CA is separated from the membrane by cleavage between the matrix protein and CA, and late release of SP1 from CA is required for capsid condensation.     

One Millimeter large Oocytes as a Tool to Study Hormonal Control of Meiotic Maturation in Starfish: Role of the Nucleus in Hormone-stimulated Phosphorylation of Cytoplasmic Proteins

Single nuclei (germinal vesicles) manually isolated from large oocytes of the starfish Echinaster sepositus , as well as the complementary anucleated oocytes, were used to investigate the early changes of protein phosphorylation which occur from 1-MeAde addition to germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD). Stimulation of protein phosphorylation was already evident in the nucleus shortly after 1-MeAde addition (18 min, thus about 0.40x the time required for GVBD), although it began first in the cytoplasm. No translocation of phosphoprotein across the nuclear envelope was detected before GVBD. Presence of the nucleus is not required for the hormone to stimulate protein phosphorylation in the remaining part of the oocytetin:fact the patterns of protein phosphorylation in enucleated oocytes were found to be identical, whether enucleation was performed after or before hormonal treatment. Cytoplasm taken at the time of GVBD from maturing Echinaster oocytes induces meiotic maturation when transferred in stage VI immature oocytes of the amphibian Xenopus laevis.     

Concanavalin A-Induced Morphological Changes and Its Binding Sites in Starfish Follicle Cells as Revealed by Electron Microscopy

Concanavalin A (Con A) stimulates the production in starfish follicle cells of 1-methyladenine, a hormone which induces oocyte maturation. We have therefore investigated Con A-induced morphological changes and Con A-binding sites in the follicle cell using native Con A and horseradish peroxidase- or ferritin-labeled Con A (HRP-Con A, Fer-Con A). After isolated follicle cells were incubated with Con A (1 mg/ml), vacuoles, the Golgi complex and multivesicular body-like organelles (MVBs) became prominent in most of the cells. After follicle cells were prefixed and then incubated with Fer-Con A for 60 min, tagged ferritin was diffusely and randomly distributed as single or small clustered particles on the cell surface. The incubation of isolated follicle cells with Fer-Con A for 10 min before fixation resulted in numerous ferritin particles localized along the internalized membrane, and also in vacuoles, MVBs and small lysosome-like structures. After 60 min incubation with Fer-Con A, ferritin was further located in large lysosome-like structures and in vesicles near and in the Golgi area as well as in the organelles described above. HRP-Con A binding sites were also observed in vacuoles and MVBs of the intact cells.
These results suggest that Con A binds at first to the cell surface and causes rapid internalization and that membrane-bound Con A is easily endocytosed into vacuoles, MVBs and lysosome-like structures, and is later incorporated in some vesicles in the Golgi area.     

Dihydrofolate Reductase in Starfish Oocytes and Embryos: Developmental Consequences of Its Inhibition by Methotrexate1

Dihydrofolate reductase in immature oocytes of the starfish, Asterina pectinifera, is estimated to be 12 pg per oocyte. After completion of meiosis, the quantity of the enzyme is approximately 20 pg per egg. The content of the enzyme in the egg is kept nearly constant at this value from fertilization to the beginning of blastulation. Methotrexate, an analogue of dihydrofolate, at 20 μM did not affect meiotic maturational process and fertilization, but inhibited embryonic development at the 512-cell stage which corresponds to the beginning of blastulation. Incorporation of externally supplied deoxy[³H]uridine into DNA of the embryos cultured in the continuous presence of 20 μM of methotrexate stopped at the 256-cell stage, suggesting that the cessassion of development of the embryo at the 512-cell stage was caused by inhibition of DNA synthesis at the preceding stage. Uptake of [³H]methotrexate was low at early cleavage stages but increased just before blastulation. Externally supplied 1 mM of thymidine counteracted the inhibitory effect of methotrexate at 20 μM, suggesting that the starvation of the methotrexate-treated embryo for thymidine nucleotides halted DNA synthesis at the beginning of blastulation.     

新生小鼠卵巢组织的玻璃化冻存、移植及分离卵泡的体外成熟培养初步研究

目的:系统地探索新生小鼠卵巢组织的玻璃化冻存建立卵巢库,移植和分离卵泡以及体外成熟培养的实验方法。方法:对1日龄小鼠卵巢组织进行冻存,解冻复苏和同种肾包膜下移植,从卵巢移植物种中进行卵泡分离和体外成熟培养。结果:①采用平衡液(ES)处理25min,玻璃化液(VS)处理3min方案冻存的卵巢组织具有更高比例的形态完整卵泡,其完整原始卵泡率均值达96.6%,显著性高于实验中其它四组方案(P0.05);②在分别移植2周和4周后回收卵巢移植物,发现二者的卵巢回收率无显著差异(P0.05),但移植4周组的卵泡回收数目要明显高于2周组(P0.05);③在培养基中添加适量的自体血清(10%,V/V)能显著提高卵子的体外成熟率,培养12h后对照组中生发泡破裂(GVBD)发生率为(34.74±4.26)%,添加血清后提高至(54.60±3.37)%,成熟的MⅡ期卵子获得率从(43.17±1.31)%升高至(57.75±5.31)%,有显著性差异(P0.05)。结论:通过该实验较好地建立了卵巢组织的玻璃化冻存、移植和卵泡分离以及体外成熟培养的实验方法。     

Induction and Inhibition of Meiotic Maturation in Follicle-enclosed Mouse Oocytes by Forskolin

A continuous exposure of follicle-enclosed mouse oocytes to ovine luteinizing hormone (LH, 10 μg/ml) in vitro resulted in a 3-fold elevation of CAMP levels in the follicle cells, but not the oocytes, with subsequent oocyte maturation. When follicle-enclosed oocytes were exposed to forskolin (0.01–10 μM) for 2 hr and then incubated in forskolin-free medium (transient exposure group), oocytes underwent germinal vesicle breakdown in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, a continuous exposure of the follicles to forskolin (10 μM) for up to 10 hr failed to induce resumption of meiosis. Follicle cell cAMP levels increased within 2 hr after the initial exposure to forskolin, and thereafter decreased rapidly regardless of whether forskolin treatment was transient or continuous. A similar transient increase in oocyte cAMP levels was observed after transient or continuous treatment with forskolin. It was evident, however, that at any time examined oocyte cAMP levels were consistently higher in the continuous exposure group than in the transient exposure group. Furthermore, a continuous exposure to forskolin also blocked LH-induced meiotic maturation. These findings suggest that elevated levels of cAMP in the oocyte block meiotic maturation in mouse oocytes. The present results further suggest that an increase in follicle cell cAMP levels is essential to the LH-induced meiotic maturation.     

调控胞质分裂的中心体相关蛋白Cep55

中心体是哺乳动物细胞内的微管组织中心,参与纺锤体的装配,因此在胞质分裂中起重要调控作用。最新发现的中心体相关蛋白Cep55(centrosomal protein,55kD)属于卷曲螺旋(coiled-coil)蛋白质家族成员,其基因定位于人染色体10q23.33。该蛋白质在多种正常组织及肿瘤细胞中均有表达,与细胞周期中的中心体和中间体偶联,被Erk2、Cdk1及Plk1共同磷酸化后发挥细胞周期调控作用。其研究对细胞周期的调控及对肿瘤发生的认识将产生极其重要的意义。     

Fine Structures of Oocytes and Accessory Cells of the Ovary in the Starfish Patiria (Asterina) pectinifera at Different Stages of Oogenesis and After 1-Methyladenine-Induced Maturation

Morphological changes in the growing and maturing oocytes of Patiria ( Asterina ) pectinifero were studied by electron microscopy. Oogenesis is of the solitary type. An extensive system of rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi complex (GC) develops in the ooplasm forming the cortical, yolk and secretory granules in its peripheral regions. The contents of the latter granules are released from the oocyte and form the vitelline membrane. At early stages of oogenesis, extensive multiplication of mitochondria results in formation of a large aggregate of these organelles in the perinuclear cytoplasm ("yolk nucleus"). After maturation of full grown oocytes has been induced by 1-methyladenine, the membranous cell structures are rapidly rearranged: vast aggregates of ER cisternae in the surface cytoplasm layer and single ER cisternae among yolk granules are disintegrated to small vesicles; the GC is reduced. These processes are suggested to be somehow related to changes in hydration of the cytoplasm and in rigidity of its surface layer. In maturing oocytes, the yolk granules form characteristic linear rows, trabeculae, traversing the cytoplasm and their boundary membranes fuse in zones of contact. Some granules are converted to multivesicular bodies, thus suggesting the activation of hydrolytic enzymes that form part of the yolk in echinoderms.     

Effects of Protein Synthesis on the Maturation of Mouse Oocytes in vitro

卵母细胞成熟过程中伴随有多种蛋白质的合成与磷酸化,蛋白质的合成对卵细胞的成熟具有重要作用。本实验较系统地阐述小鼠卵母细胞体外成熟培养的不同阶段蛋白质合成对卵母细胞成熟的影响。放线菌酮是肽链延伸的抑制因子。将生发泡（ＧＶ）期的卵母细胞分别于Ｔ６成熟培养液中培养０、４、６、９小时后,转至含有１０ｍｇ／ｍｌ放线菌酮的Ｔ６成熟培养液继续培养１２１５小时。固定、染色、观察卵母细胞。结果如Ｔａｂｌｅ１。０小时实验组：抑制处理４小时,其生发泡破裂（ＧＶＢＤ）发生率与对照组无明显差异。表明：卵母细胞ＧＶＢＤ所需蛋白质（如：成熟促进因子ＭＰＦ等）是在卵巢的卵泡卵母细胞生长过程中完成的。４、６小时实验组：笫一极体的释放被完全抑制,卵母细胞不能达到ＭＩ期,染色质处于凝集状态（Ｆｉｇ．３＆４）。表明：ＧＶＢＤＭＩ期间所需蛋白质的合成对卵母细胞ＭＩ期中期纺缍体的形成与维持具有重要作用。９小时实验组：可能由于卵母细胞发育速度存在个体间的差异。没有进入ＭＩＩ期的便停滞于ＭＩ期以前。进入ＭＩ期的则能排出笫一极体。因此,笫一极体的释放总体上呈不完全抑制状态,其释放率低于对照组。但是,后者虽然弪过恢复培养至１５小时,可能由于微管蛋白的合成     

Intracellular Localization and Sedimentation Coefficient of DNA Ligase in Oocytes of the Starfish, Asterina pectinifera

When immature oocytes of Asterina pectinifera were separated into karyoplasts (nuclear fragments) and cytoplasts (anuclear fragments) by cytochalasin B treatment and centrifugation in a sucrose gradient, almost all their DNA ligase activity was recovered in the karyoplasts. Thus, DNA ligase seems to be localized in the germinal vesicles or their vicinity in starfish oocytes. No ontogenic change in the activity of DNA ligase per oocyte, egg or embryo, or in its sedimentation coefficient (4.1 S) was observed during oocyte maturation, fertilization, or early development.     

Effects of Zinc Supplementation During In Vitro Maturation on Meiotic Maturation of Oocytes and Developmental Capacity in Yak

Zinc (Zn) is an essential trace element that is required during mammalian developmental processes. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of Zn supplementation during in vitro maturation (IVM) on the developmental capacity of yak (Bos grunniens) oocytes. Cumulus expansion, nuclear maturation, intracellular glutathione (GSH), reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, subsequent embryonic development, and the expression of Zn transporters (ZnTs) and Zrt and Irt-like proteins (ZiPs) were evaluated. The Zn concentrations in yak plasma and follicular fluid were 0.740?±?0.012 and 0.382?±?0.009 μg/mL, respectively. The cumulus expansion did not show significant differences in COCs after matured with or without Zn supplementation (P?>?0.05). The intracellular GSH was higher in oocytes matured with 1 or 2 mg/L Zn than in control group (0 mg/L) (P?<?0.05). However, ROS levels of oocytes matured with 1 or 2 mg/L Zn were reduced significantly compared with the control and 0.5 mg/L groups (P?<?0.05). The SOD activity was increased significantly after Zn supplementation. The cleavage rate was not significantly different after Zn supplementation (P?>?0.05). Percentages of matured oocytes that developed into the blastocyst stage after IVF were 47.9, 50.5, 60.4, and 58.9% for 0, 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/L Zn groups, respectively. Gene expression analysis revealed that the expression patterns associated with Zn were changed after Zn supplementation. In conclusion, Zn supplementation to IVM improved yak oocyte maturation and subsequent development by increasing GSH and SOD activity, decreasing ROS in oocytes.     

雌二醇和孕酮对小鼠卵母细胞体外成熟的影响

目的研究雌二醇（E2）、孕酮（P4）对昆明小鼠卵母细胞体外成熟的影响。方法小鼠经注射孕马血清促性腺激素（PMSG）后48 h,摘取卵巢获得未成熟卵母细胞,分别在单独含不同浓度的E2或P4的成熟液中,或在同时含有不同浓度E2和P4的成熟液中,进行体外成熟,并对经过E2和P4处理成熟的卵母细胞进行体外受精。结果经15-16 h的成熟培养,各E2处理组的卵母细胞第一极体排出率虽然均略高于对照组,但它们之间无显著差异;各组卵母细胞体外受精48 h后,1000 ng/mL E2处理组的卵裂率显著低于其他各处理组和对照组,但各组的囊胚率之间无显著差异。各P4处理组的极体率和卵裂率,与对照组相比无显著差异,但是各处理组的囊胚率均极显著低于与对照组;两种激素协同处理组中[1000 ng/mL E2＋1000 ng/mL P4]组的极体率显著高于其他各处理组;而与对照组的极体率差异不显著。结论P4对小鼠卵母细胞的后期发育能力有一定的抑制作用,而E2却对小鼠卵母细胞的成熟及其发育潜力无明显作用。