植物环核苷酸门控离子通道基因的功能及其调控

环核苷酸(cAMP/cGMP)是生命体重要的信号分子,环核苷酸门控离子通道(CNGC)是环核苷酸主要的受体之一,目前已在植物中克隆并鉴定了多个环核苷酸门控离子通道基因,它们参与调控植物的生长、发育以及抗病等反应.这些通道既可通过一价阳离子,也可通过二价阳离子,其活性受Ca2+/Calmodulin调控.本文概括了近年来植物环核苷酸门控离子通道(CNGC)基因的克隆、植物CNGC对离子的选择特性、CNGC的生物学功能与调控等方面的研究进展.     

一氧化氮信号通路与血管功能

一氧化氮-环磷鸟苷-依赖蛋白激酶信号通路是血管功能调制的关键机制之一,本文对这一机制近年来来研究进展,特别是相关信号分子二聚体化的氧化还原调节及生理意义,及可溶性鸟苷酸环化酶催化产生的环磷肌苷作为一个新的血管收缩信使分子作简要介绍。     

环核苷酸门控离子通道的结构、功能及活性调节

环核苷酸门控离子通道（cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels,CNG）是非选择性的阳离子通道,直接被环核苷酸活化.6个不同基因编码CNG离子通道蛋白,4个A亚单元(A1～A4)和2个B亚单元(B1,B3).CNG离子通道是由2个或3个不同的亚单元组成的异四聚体复合物,是Ca2+进入细胞内的主要通道之一.CNG离子通道的活性可被Ca2+ /CaM及磷酸化/去磷酸化作用所调节,从而改变细胞内钙离子浓度,触发一系列生理效应.近年来CNG离子通道的研究进展神速,成为生命科学的一个热点领域.本文对CNG离子通道的结构、功能及活性调节机制进行了综述.     

GABA对大鼠海马谷氨酸受体/NO/cGMP神经通路的调控作用

海马内谷氨酸受体 /ＮＯ/ｃＧＭＰ神经通路在许多病理生理过程中产生非常重要的作用 ,如学习记忆、神经退行性病变等。但关于海马内兴奋性神经环路如何被调控尚不清楚。前期工作表明ＧＡＢＡ可能对海马内兴奋性神经环路起着调控作用 ,关于该方面的研究尚未见报道。本实验应用脑微透析技术探讨ＧＡＢＡ对大鼠海马谷氨酸受体 /ＮＯ/ｃＧＭＰ神经通路的调控作用。1　材料和方法(1 )试剂　 2 ,3 ｄｉｈｙｄｒｏｘｙ 6 ｎｉｔｒｏ 7 ｓｕｌｆａｍｏｙｌ ｂｅｎｚｏ(ｆ) ｑｕｉｎｏｘａｌｉｎｅ(ＮＢＱＸ ,英国ＴｏｃｒｉｓＣｏｏｋｓｏｎ公司…     

细胞外调控分子对酸敏感离子通道的功能调控及其机制

酸敏感离子通道(acid-Sensing ion channels,ASlCs)是一类由细胞外质子(H )激活的配体门控阳离子通道.迄今为止,人们在哺乳动物体内已经发现了6种ASICs亚基蛋白,它们分布在多种组织器官中.越来越多的研究表明:ASICs参与了机体的生理、病理过程,如:学习、记忆、痛觉、脑中风和肿瘤.在过去的10年中,人们发现多种内源性或外源性分子可以调控ASICs通道活性.由于这些细胞外调控分子与多种生理和病理功能有关,因此研究细胞外调控分子对ASICs的调控及其分子机制,可以帮助我们更多地了解ASICs功能以及结构信息,也为人们设计ASICs靶点特异性药物提供了理论依据.文章将系统地介绍细胞外调控分子对ASICs的功能调控及其作用机制,特别是该研究领域的最新进展.     

酸敏感离子通道的功能及其相关调控

酸敏感离子通道（ASICs）是一类由胞外酸化所激活的阳离子通道.目前,已发现了6个ASICs亚基,它们在外周和中枢神经系统中广泛表达.利用基因敲除等技术,已证明它们在触觉、痛觉、酸味觉以及学习记忆中具有重要作用.同时,它们也参与某些病理反应.ASICs可以被神经肽、温度、金属离子和缺血相关物质等调控,从而整合细胞周围的多种信号以行使其功能.     

环鸟苷酸依赖的蛋白激酶对心血管功能的调节作用

环鸟苷酸(cGMP)依赖的蛋白激酶(PKG)是一氧化氮-cGMP的主要细胞内受体,在哺乳动物细胞中分为PKG-I和PKG-II两型。在PKG介导的血管平滑肌舒张作用中,其主要通过活化细胞膜上的钙活化的钾通道(BK通道),磷酸化肌质网上的受磷蛋白(phospholamban,PLB)和三磷酸肌醇受体相关的PKG-I底物(IP3receptor-associated PKG-I substrate,IRAG),降低细胞内Ca2 浓度。PKG还可通过活化肌球蛋白轻链磷酸酶及抑制Rho激酶降低肌球蛋白对Ca2 敏感性。PKG调节血管平滑肌细胞的基因表达和表型调变,调节细胞增生。PKG活化以后还具有抑制血小板聚集,抑制心肌细胞肥大等功能。最近的研究证明,PKG的表达水平和活性改变与动脉粥样硬化和再狭窄、高血压、糖尿病心血管病变以及硝酸盐耐受等的发病机制有密切关系。     

植物蛋白激酶CK2的调控与功能研究进展

蛋白激酶CK2(Casein Kinase 2,CK2)是最早发现的蛋白激酶之一,属于丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶家族.CK2在真核生物中广泛存在,结构高度保守,参与调节生物多种生命代谢活动,参与植物生长发育中光信号转导、抗逆境生存、昼夜节律调节等过程,且与肿瘤的发生、炎症反应及神经功能障碍性疾病等密切相关.该文对近年来有关CK2的结构特征、理化特性、活性调控、在植物中的功能等的研究进展进行综述,为进一步研究其在代谢及信号转导中的调控作用,明确其在植物生长发育调控网络中的地位及在作物品质提高中的应用提供参考.     

注射依赖cAMP的蛋白激酶催化亚基加速胚胎内细胞间连接通讯的发育(英文)

本研究以爪蟾胚胎内胚层细胞间连接通讯发育的时程为指标,观察了cAMP和依赖cAMP的蛋白激酶催化亚基对这一发育的影响。将依赖cAMP的蛋白激酶催化亚基注射入爪蟾胚胎四细胞期的每一个细胞可使该胚胎内胚层细胞间连接通讯的发育明显加快,提示在正常状态下这一发育的进程是受细胞内依赖cAMP的磷酸化水平的制约。但用双丁酰cAMP和磷酸二酯酶抑制剂对胚胎进行培育,或将cAMP和磷酸二酯酶抑制剂注射入胚胎细胞,对这一发育并无影响,可能是由于这些胚胎细胞内依赖cAMP的蛋白激酶的实际有效含量较低而cAMP含量较高所致。注射这种蛋白激酶催化亚基所诱导的胚胎细胞间连接通讯在注射后约8.5小时出现。这一时间比前人在哺乳动物细胞培养中用cAMP或必需的信使RNA诱导出细胞间连接通讯所需要的时间(2—4小时)长得多,提示在胚胎中依赖cAMP的磷酸化对细胞间连接通讯发育的作用是从RNA转录的水平上开始的。     

二酰基甘油调控细胞功能的机制

二酰基甘油(DG)是一些磷脂水解产生的一种有重要功能的第二信使,它主要通过激活细胞内的蛋白激酶C(PKC)进而磷酸化一系列底物蛋白,产生相应的细胞效应．在细胞整体水平,DG还是一种重要的脂类物质的代谢中介产物,通过若干代谢途径参与脂类和激素代谢循环,目前,有关DG调控细胞生理功能的研究,主要集中在细胞信号转导方面．     

Cyclic GMP modulates the expression of Gi protein and adenylyl cyclase signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells

We have recently shown that the nitric oxide (NO) donor, SNAP, decreased the expression of Giα proteins and associated functions in vascular smooth muscle cells. Because NO stimulates soluble guanylyl cyclase and increases the levels of guanosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP), the present studies were undertaken to investigate whether cGMP can also modulate the expression of Gi proteins and associated adenylyl cyclase signaling. A10 vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and primary cultured cells from aorta of Sprague Dawley rats were used for these studies. The cells were treated with 8-bromoguanosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (8Br-cGMP) for 24 h and the expression of Giα proteins was determined by immunobloting techniques. Adenylyl cyclase activity was determined by measuring [³²P]cAMP formation for [α-³²P]ATP. Treatment of cells with 8-Br-cGMP (0.5 mM) decreased the expression of Giα-2 and Giα-3 by about 30–45%, which was restored towards control levels by KT5823, an inhibitor of protein kinase G. On the other and hand, the levels of Gsα protein were not altered by this treatment. The decreased expression of Giα proteins by 8Br-cGMP treatment was reflected in decreased Gi functions. For example, the inhibition of forskolin (FSK)-stimulated adenylyl cyclase activity by low concentrations of GTPγS (receptor-independent Gi functions) was significantly decreased by 8Br-cGMP treatment. In addition, exposure of the cells to 8Br-cGMP also resulted in the attenuation of angiotensin (Ang) II- and C-ANP_4–23 (a ring-deleted analog of atrial natriuretic peptide [ANP]-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase activity (receptor-dependent functions of Gi). On the other hand, Gsα-mediated stimulations of adenylyl cyclase by GTPγS, isoproterenol and FSK were significantly augmented in 8Br-cGMP-treated cells. These results indicated the 8Br-cGMP decreased the expression of Giα proteins and associated functions in VSMCs. From these studies, it can be suggested that 8Br-cGMP-induced decreased levels of Gi proteins and resultant increased levels of cAMP may be an additional mechanism through which cGMP regulates vascular tone and thereby blood pressure.     

Guanylyl Cyclase C Receptor: Regulation of Catalytic Activity by ATP

Guanylyl cyclase C (GCC), a member of the family of membrane bound guanylyl cyclases is the receptor for the heat-stable enterotoxin (ST) peptides and the guanylin family of endogenous peptides. GCC is activated upon ligand binding to increase intracellular cGMP levels, which in turn activates other downstream signalling events in the cell. GCC is also activated in vitro by nonionic detergents. We have used the T84 cell line as a model system to investigate the regulation of GCC activity by ATP. Ligand-stimulated GCC activity is potentiated in the presence of ATP, whereas detergent-stimulated activity is inhibited. The potentiation of GCC activity by ATP is dependent on the presence of Mg²⁺ ions, and is probably brought about by a direct binding of Mg-ATP to GCC. The protein kinase-like domain of GCC, which has earlier been shown to play a critical role in the regulation of GCC activity, may be a possible site for the binding of Mg-ATP to GCC.     

Development of Adrenocortical Cyclic Nucleotide (Cyclic AMP and Cyclic GMP) and Corticosterone Orcadian Rhythms in Male and Female Rats

The daily rhythm of the adrenocortical cyclic nucleotides (cyclic AMP and cyclic GIMP) was studied in infant male and female Wistar rats before and after the establishment of an adult-like daily rhythm of plasma corticosterone. As in this strain the rhythm of corticosterone is known to be present on postnatal day 18, pups of 2 and 3 weeks of age were studied. The dams and the pups as well as the young adult animals were kept on a controlled 12L-12D photoperiod. Groups of 8-10 pups were killed at 4-hr intervals throughout the day. Plasma corticosterone levels and adrenal cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP concentrations were simultaneously measured and the daily patterns established. Pups of 2 weeks of age showed neither plasma corticosterone nor adrenal cyclic AMP rhythms whereas pups of 3 weeks of age exhibited a typical adult-like circadian rhythm for both variables. The patterns for adrenal cyclic GMP differed according to sex: In female pups no cyclic GMP circadian rhythm could be detected at either 2 or 3 wk. In male pups of 3 wk a typical mature rhythm for adrenal cyclic GMP was evident whereas in younger male pups (2 wk) a circadian rhythm was detected. This circadian rhythm, however, differed from mature circadian rhythm in that its peak was located at 1300 hr instead of 0700 hr. These results demonstrate that, unlike that of cyclic AMP the adrenal cyclic GMP circadian rhythm does not appear at the same time as the plasma corticosterone circadian rhythm. Moreover, a circadian rhythmicity for adrenal cyclic GMP can be found in the absence of any corticosterone circadian rhythm. These facts argue against the view of cyclic GMP being a mediator of ACTH-stimulated steroidogenesis.     

Development of Adrenocortical Cyclic Nucleotide (Cyclic AMP and Cyclic GMP) and Corticosterone Orcadian Rhythms in Male and Female Rats

The daily rhythm of the adrenocortical cyclic nucleotides (cyclic AMP and cyclic GIMP) was studied in infant male and female Wistar rats before and after the establishment of an adult-like daily rhythm of plasma corticosterone. As in this strain the rhythm of corticosterone is known to be present on postnatal day 18, pups of 2 and 3 weeks of age were studied. The dams and the pups as well as the young adult animals were kept on a controlled 12L-12D photoperiod. Groups of 8–10 pups were killed at 4-hr intervals throughout the day. Plasma corticosterone levels and adrenal cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP concentrations were simultaneously measured and the daily patterns established. Pups of 2 weeks of age showed neither plasma corticosterone nor adrenal cyclic AMP rhythms whereas pups of 3 weeks of age exhibited a typical adult-like circadian rhythm for both variables. The patterns for adrenal cyclic GMP differed according to sex: In female pups no cyclic GMP circadian rhythm could be detected at either 2 or 3 wk. In male pups of 3 wk a typical mature rhythm for adrenal cyclic GMP was evident whereas in younger male pups (2 wk) a circadian rhythm was detected. This circadian rhythm, however, differed from mature circadian rhythm in that its peak was located at 1300 hr instead of 0700 hr. These results demonstrate that, unlike that of cyclic AMP the adrenal cyclic GMP circadian rhythm does not appear at the same time as the plasma corticosterone circadian rhythm. Moreover, a circadian rhythmicity for adrenal cyclic GMP can be found in the absence of any corticosterone circadian rhythm. These facts argue against the view of cyclic GMP being a mediator of ACTH-stimulated steroidogenesis.     

Cyclic nucleotide selectivity of protein kinase G isozymes

The intrinsic activity of the C‐terminal catalytic (C) domain of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)‐dependent protein kinases (PKG) is inhibited by interactions with the N‐terminal regulatory (R) domain. Selective binding of cGMP to cyclic nucleotide binding (CNB) domains within the R‐domain disrupts the inhibitory R–C interaction, leading to the release and activation of the C‐domain. Affinity measurements of mammalian and plasmodium PKG CNB domains reveal different degrees of cyclic nucleotide affinity and selectivity; the CNB domains adjacent to the C‐domain are more cGMP selective and therefore critical for cGMP‐dependent activation. Crystal structures of isolated CNB domains in the presence and absence of cyclic nucleotides reveal isozyme‐specific contacts that explain cyclic nucleotide selectivity and conformational changes that accompany CNB. Crystal structures of tandem CNB domains identify two types of CNB‐mediated dimeric contacts that indicate cGMP‐driven reorganization of domain–domain interfaces that include large conformational changes. Here, we review the available structural and functional information of PKG CNB domains that further advance our understanding of cGMP mediated regulation and activation of PKG isozymes.     

Cyclic AMP and higher plants

Despite the evidence in support, the extent of which is outlined in this review, the occurrence of cyclic AMP in tissues of higher plants has been doubted by a number of previous reviewers. Recent MS and other evidence vindicates earlier identification of an adenosine nucleotide from plant tissues as adenosine 3′:5′-cyclic monophosphate. The additional demonstration of 3′: 5′-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases in higher plants, together with adenylate cyclase, a specific cyclic AMP binding protein, and calmodulin, means that plants possess all the necessary components for a functional cyclic AMP-regulated system. Whether such a system does function in plants is considered as are also the reported physiological effects of exogenously supplied cyclic AMP on plant tissues.     

Regulation of intracellular cyclic GMP levels in olfactory sensory neurons

Cyclic AMP is the primary second messenger mediating odorant signal transduction in mammals. A number of studies indicate that cyclic GMP is also involved in a variety of other olfactory signal transduction processes, including adaptation, neuronal development, and long-term cellular responses in the setting of odorant stimulation. However, the mechanisms that control the production and degradation of cGMP in olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) remain unclear. Here, we investigate these mechanisms using primary cultures of OSNs. We demonstrate that odorants increase cGMP levels in intact OSNs in vitro. Different from the rapid and transient cAMP responses to odorants, the cGMP elevation is both delayed and sustained. Inhibition of soluble guanylyl cyclase and heme oxygenase blocks these odorant-induced cGMP increases, whereas inhibition of cGMP PDEs (phosphodiesterases) increases this response. cGMP PDE activity is increased by odorant stimulation, and is sensitive to both ambient calcium and cAMP concentrations. Calcium stimulates cGMP PDE activity, whereas cAMP and protein kinase A appears to inhibit it. These data demonstrate a mechanism by which odorant stimulation may regulate cGMP levels through the modulation of cAMP and calcium level in OSNs. Such interactions between odorants and second messenger systems may be important to the integration of immediate and long-term responses in the setting odorant stimulation.     

Regulation and Function of Cyclic GMP-Mediated Pathways in Glial Cells

A large body of evidence supports a role for the NO-cGMP-protein kinase G pathway in the regulation of synaptic transmission and plasticity, brain development and neuroprotection. Circumstancial evidence implicates natriuretic peptide-stimulated cGMP formation in the same CNS functions. In addition to neurons, both cGMP-mediated pathways are functional in glial cells and an increasing number of reports indicate that they may control important aspects of glial cell physiology relevant to neuronal function. In this article we briefly review the regulation of cGMP formation in glial cells and summarize recent evidence indicating that cGMP-mediated pathways can play important roles in astroglial and microglial function in normal and diseased brain. Special issue article in honor of Dr. Anna Maria Giuffrida-Stella.     

Regulation of slow calcium channels of myocardial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells by cyclic nucleotides and phosphorylation

The slow Ca²⁺ channels (L-type) of the heart are stimulated by cAMP. Elevation of cAMP produces a very rapid increase in number of slow channels available for voltage activation during excitation. The probability of a Ca²⁺ channel opening and the mean open time of the channel are increased. Therefore, any agent that increases the cAMP level of the myocardial cell will tend to potentiate I_Ca, Ca²⁺ influx, and contraction. The action of cAMP is mediated by PK-A and phosphorylation of the slow Ca²⁺ channel protein or an associated regulatory protein (stimulatory type). The myocardial slow Ca²⁺ channels are also rogulated by cGMP, in a manner that is opposite orantagonistic to that of cAMP. We have demonstrated this at both the macroscople level (whole-cell voltage clamp) and the single-channel level. The effect of cGMP is mediated by PK-G and phosphorylation of a protein, as for example, a regulatory protein (inhibitory-type) associated with the Ca²⁺ channel. Introduction of PK-G intracellularly causes a relatively rapid inhibition of I_Ca(L) in both chick and rat heart cells. Such inhibition occurs for both the basal and stimulated I_Ca(L). In addition, the cGMP/PK-G system was reported to stimulate a phosphatase that dephosphorylates the Ca²⁺ channel. In addition to the slower indirect pathway—exerted via cAMP/PK-A—there is a faster more-direct pathway for I_Ca(L) stimulation by the -adrenergic receptor. This latter pathway involves direct modulation of the channel activity by the alpha subunit (_s*) of the G_s-protein. In vascular smooth muscle cells the two pathways (direct and indirect) also appear to be present, although the indirect pathway producesinhibition of I_Ca(L). PK-C and calmodulin-PK also may play roles in regulation of the myocardial slow Ca²⁺ channels. Both of these protein kinases stimulate the activity of these channels. Thus, it appears that the slow Ca²⁺ channel is a complex structure, including perhaps several associated regulatory proteins, which can be regulated by a number of factors intrinsic and extrinsic to the cell, and thereby control can be exercised over the force of contraction of the heart.This review-type article was prepared by modifying an article published in a book by Sperelakiset al., 1994.