Minimum threshold for establishment and dispersal of Lilioceris cheni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae): a biological control agent of Dioscorea bulbifera

The successful establishment or failure of a new population is often attributed to propagule pressure, the combination of the number of independent introduction events, and the number of individuals released at each event. The design of optimal release strategies for biological control agents benefits from an understanding of the impact of propagule pressure on the species being released. The dispersal rate of individuals from nascent population foci can also affect establishment success. We assessed the minimum threshold for establishment and measured dispersal of Lilioceris cheni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a biological control agent for Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreales), air potato. Replicated releases of 10, 50, and 100 adults of L. cheni were conducted on the east and west coasts of south Florida. Dispersal was measured from 19 of these sites plus 19 additional release locations in south and central Florida. Lilioceris cheni established populations from all three release sizes with no apparent influence of site location. Releases of 10, 50, and 100 adults resulted in 50%, 67%, and 85% establishment, respectively. Beetles dispersed an average of 1.41?±?0.515?km/yr. Dispersal distance was significantly affected by the time since release but not the number of individuals released. Our results suggest that future releases of 100 individuals could be spaced several kilometres apart on the landscape to facilitate rapid colonisation of D. bulbifera infestations.     

Changes in latitude: overwintering survival of two Lilioceris cheni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) biotypes in Florida

Lilioceris cheni is a successful biological control agent on the invasive yam, Dioscorea bulbifera in many areas in Florida, Georgia, Alabama and Louisiana. Two biotypes are available for release and come from significantly different centres of origin. The Nepalese biotype was collected at higher altitude and latitude sites, whereas the Chinese biotype was collected at slightly lower latitude and lower altitude. We hypothesised that Nepalese beetles would survive winter better in north Florida and that Chinese beetles would overwinter better in subtropical south Florida. We established sites in Homestead, Fort Pierce, Gainesville and Tallahassee, Florida to gauge the overwintering survival of each biotype. Beetles that overwintered in each site for one to three seasons were collected and followed to assess their reproductive capacity. In the final year of the experiment, we extracted fat bodies to determine effects of biotype and site. Nepalese beetles overwintered significantly better overall. Beetles survived better in the first study year (2013–2014). Both biotypes reproduced very well after surviving winter and beetles in Fort Pierce survived better than beetles in other regions and maintained a higher fat body. Nepalese beetles may have a wider ecological envelope – a decided advantage for a large region such as peninsular Florida. We suggest that current release programmes incorporate Nepalese beetles into their protocol to increase overwinter survival and establishment.     

Host range validation,molecular identification and release and establishment of a Chinese biotype of the Asian leaf beetle Lilioceris cheni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Criocerinae) for control of Dioscorea bulbifera L. in the southern United States

Dioscorea bulbifera, an Asian vine, is invasive in the southeastern USA. It rarely flowers but propagates from potato-like bulbils formed in leaf axils, which persist into the subsequent growing season. Lilioceris cheni Gressitt and Kimoto, a foliage-feeding beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Criocerinae) from Nepal, had been tested, proven to be a specialist and approved for release as a biological control agent. Regulatory delays, however, resulted in the demise of quarantine-held colonies, and acquisition of new Nepalese stock proved untenable. Searches then undertaken in southern China resulted in the collection of over 300 similar beetles. Two Chinese Lilioceris species were identified: one confirmed to be L. cheni and the other identified as Lilioceris egena (Weise). Mitochondrial analysis revealed an exact DNA match between some Chinese and one of the two Nepalese c oxidase subunit I haplotypes and all Chinese L. cheni haplotypes clustered as a single species but the comingling of the two species aroused concerns over possible hybridisation. These concerns were allayed by nuclear D2 analysis showing the absence of dual parental sequences. Nonetheless, diligence was exercised to ensure that the Chinese strains were safe to release. Abridged host testing using critical test species verified specificity. Caged releases during autumn 2011 documented the ability of adult beetles to overwinter in south Florida despite a prolonged lack of foliage. Open releases the following year produced vigorous populations that caused extensive defoliation. Preliminary observations indicate that L. cheni now contributes to the control of D. bulbifera and the bulbil-feeding L. egena should complement these effects if its host range proves appropriate.     

Ecological host-range of Lilioceris cheni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a biological control agent of Dioscorea bulbifera

Open-field host-specificity testing assesses the host-range of a biological control agent in a setting that permits the agent to use its full complement of host-seeking behaviors. This form of testing, particularly when it includes a no-choice phase in which the target weed is killed, may provide the most accurate assessment of the ecological host-range of an agent. We conducted a two-phase field host-specificity test with experienced and naïve adults of Lilioceris cheni Gressitt and Kimoto (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a biological control agent of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreales: Dioscoreaceae). We followed field tests with a no-choice laboratory consumption study with the congeneric plant species that received test feeding in the field, and an additional field evaluation of spillover risk. Both experienced and naïve adults strongly preferred D. bulbifera to non-targets in the field. Within 47 h post-release, 90% of the released beetles that remained in the plots were found on D. bulbifera. In the laboratory no-choice test, the beetles consumed significantly more D. bulbifera and survived longer on this plant than the non-targets. All naïve beetles in the Dioscorea sansibarensis and Dioscorea villosa treatments and 75% of naïve beetles on Dioscorea floridana died within 7 d. Potted plants of the native D. floridana experienced minor test feeding in the spillover experiment when surrounded by large populations of L. cheni in the field. At the end of this experiment, L. cheni eggs and/or larvae were present on 83% of D. bulbifera plants but none of the D. floridana plants. We conclude that L. cheni is host-specific to D. bulbifera and does not pose a spillover risk to the native D. floridana.     

Monitored releases of Rhinoncomimus latipes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a biological control agent of mile-a-minute weed (Persicaria perfoliata), 2004–2008

Mile-a-minute weed, Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross, is an invasive annual vine of Asian origin that has developed extensive monocultures, especially in disturbed open areas in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. A host-specific Asian weevil, Rhinoncomimus latipes Korotyaev, was approved for release in North America in 2004, and weevils have been reared at the New Jersey Department of Agriculture Beneficial Insect Laboratory since then. By the end of 2007 more than 53,000 weevils had been reared and released, mostly in New Jersey, but also in Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. The beetles established at 63 out of 65 sites (96.9%) where they were released between 2004 and 2007, with successful releases consisting of as few as 200 weevils. Weevils were recorded at 30 additional non-release sites in New Jersey, where they had dispersed at an average rate of 4.3 km/year. Standardized monitoring of fixed quadrats was conducted in paired release and control sites at eight locations. Significant differences in mile-a-minute weed populations in the presence and absence of weevils were found at three locations, with reduction in spring densities to 25% or less of what they had been at the start within 2–3 years at release sites, while weed densities at control sites were largely unchanged. Mile-a-minute weed populations at a fourth site were similarly reduced at the release site, but without control data for comparison due to rapid colonization of the paired control site. At the other four locations, all on islands, mile-a-minute weed populations were reduced at both release and control sites without large weevil populations developing, apparently due to environmental conditions such as late frost and extreme drought.     

Field dispersal of the parasitoid wasp Habrobracon hebetor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) following augmentative release against the millet head miner Heliocheilus albipunctella (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the Sahel

Pearl millet is one of the major staple food crops in Sub-Sahelian Africa, and the millet head miner (MHM) [Heliocheilus albipunctella] is its major pest, causing serious economic damage in the maturity period. We studied the dispersion patterns of the endogenous ectoparasitoid, Habrobracon hebetor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), after augmentative releases in pearl millet fields for biological control of the MHM, in 2010 and 2011 in Burkina Faso and Niger. The parasitoids were released using 15 jute bags per release site. Parasitoid dispersion was indirectly monitored through weekly assessments of MHM parasitism by H. hebetor at different distances from release points (0, 3 and 5?km) and in control villages (15?km). Our findings indicate that the jute bags released approximately 900–1000 parasitoids per site over a period of three weeks. This initial parasitoid population led to higher parasitism of MHM larvae at the site of dissemination compared to farms at distances of 3 and 5?km. However, usually after five weeks, successive generations of H. hebetor dispersed up to 3?km, causing high levels of MHM larval mortality, which sometimes is similar to those of the release points. Based on these results, we recommend the release of parasitoids at sites spaced 3?km for timely and more efficient control of MHM populations.     

Development of Aerial Releases of Diachasmimorpha tryoni (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a Parasitoid that Attacks the Mediterranean Fruit Fly, Ceratitis capitata (Weidemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), in the Guatemalan Highlands

A braconid parasitoid, Diachasmimorpha tryoni (Cameron), was released from the air into Guatemalan coffee plantations that contained Mediterranean fruit flies, Ceratitis capitata (Weidemann). Parasitoid adults were chilled, placed in paper bags, and dropped from an altitude of 100 m and at an airspeed of ~ 130 km/h. Releases were made at four different densities over a period of two years. At the higher release rates parasitism levels reached as high as 84%. The feasibility of using a more technically sophisticated aerial release technique, the auger sterile-insect release machine utilized in C. capitata sterile-fly aerial eradication projects in California and Florida, was also examined. Chilled D. tryoni either alone or in combination with chilled, sterile C. capitata , were dropped over target areas and the released parasitoids examined for mortality and damage. Samples of released parasitoids were taken and tested for 'flight ability'; i.e. flight response after an opportunity to recover from chilling. There was no evidence of significant mortality due to aerial release, and the flight-ability of insects released at various rates and altitudes did not significantly differ from chilled controls that were not released from an airplane.     

Release,establishment and realised geographic distribution of Diorhabda carinulata and D. elongata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in California,U.S.A.

This report summarises efforts to establish Diorhabda carinulata (Desbrochers) and D. elongata (Brullé) in California for the control of invasive saltcedars (Tamarix spp.), which degrade riparian ecosystems in the western United States. Over 14,000 D. carinulata individuals were released in California among four locations between 1999 and 2002 but beetles only established at the Tinemaha Reservoir site, the most eastern release location. More than 236,000 D. elongata individuals were released between 13 sites from 2003–2009 and establishment was limited to two sites, along the Cache and Pope creeks in northwestern California. The D. carinulata population did not disperse beyond the release area despite the presence of nearby (ca. 20?km) patches of the host plant. In contrast, D. elongata spread along Cache Creek and branches of related tributaries within the same watershed at ca. 14?km per year. A survey of 122 Tamarix stands across 15 California counties revealed that neither introduced beetle colonised other host patches, including those in neighbouring watersheds. Despite exclusive use of T. parviflora for ca. 36 generations, field collected D. elongata adults demonstrated strong preferences for T. ramosissima over T. parviflora when selecting both resting and ovipositional sites in caged choice tests. The proportion of D. elongata ovipositing on T. parviflora varied over time but with no clear trend of shifting host preference despite strong selection pressure. Explanations for the limited establishment and spread of Diorhabda spp. as well as impact to the target weeds are discussed.     

Monitored releases of Rhinoncomimus latipes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a biological control agent of mile-a-minute weed (Persicaria perfoliata), 2004–2008

Mile-a-minute weed, Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross, is an invasive annual vine of Asian origin that has developed extensive monocultures, especially in disturbed open areas in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. A host-specific Asian weevil, Rhinoncomimus latipes Korotyaev, was approved for release in North America in 2004, and weevils have been reared at the New Jersey Department of Agriculture Beneficial Insect Laboratory since then. By the end of 2007 more than 53,000 weevils had been reared and released, mostly in New Jersey, but also in Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. The beetles established at 63 out of 65 sites (96.9%) where they were released between 2004 and 2007, with successful releases consisting of as few as 200 weevils. Weevils were recorded at 30 additional non-release sites in New Jersey, where they had dispersed at an average rate of 4.3 km/year. Standardized monitoring of fixed quadrats was conducted in paired release and control sites at eight locations. Significant differences in mile-a-minute weed populations in the presence and absence of weevils were found at three locations, with reduction in spring densities to 25% or less of what they had been at the start within 2–3 years at release sites, while weed densities at control sites were largely unchanged. Mile-a-minute weed populations at a fourth site were similarly reduced at the release site, but without control data for comparison due to rapid colonization of the paired control site. At the other four locations, all on islands, mile-a-minute weed populations were reduced at both release and control sites without large weevil populations developing, apparently due to environmental conditions such as late frost and extreme drought.     

Determination of Agriotes obscurus (Coleoptera: Elateridae) sex pheromone attraction range using target male behavioural responses

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Impact of Host Plant Connectivity,Crop Border and Patch Size on Adult Colorado Potato Beetle Retention

Tagged Colorado potato beetles (CPB), Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), were released on potato plants, Solanum tuberosum L., and tracked using a portable harmonic radar system to determine the impact of host plant spatial distribution on the tendency of the pest to remain on the colonized host plant or patch. Results confirmed the long residency time on the host plant and showed that close connection of the plant to neighboring plants hastened dispersal between plants. Tracking walking CPB for over 6 h in small potato plots revealed that all types of mixed borders tested (potato/bare ground, potato/timothy and potato/woodland) acted as a strong barrier and retained beetles within the patch. In another experiment in potato patches surrounded by bare ground borders, tracked walking CPB displayed similar behaviour for up to four days. The distribution of turning angles in the CPB walking paths was not uniform and corresponded to beetles following the edge rows of potato patches in response to the crop border barrier or reversing their direction as they reached the end of a row and therefore a border. Patch size had no or little effect on beetle retention in the patch. The relative distribution of counts of tagged beetles detected among small (16 m²), medium (64 m²) and large size (256 m²) patches of potato four days after initial release remained similar to that of numbers released. Even though mixed crop borders were a strong barrier to walking CPB emigrating from potato patches, the departure rate of beetles over time was high. Results suggest that the effect of mixed borders is largely limited to dispersal by walking and does not apply to beetles leaving host patches by flight. The manipulation of crop borders and patch size seem to have limited potential for the management of CPB emigrating from potato fields.     

Post hoc assessment of an operational biocontrol program: efficacy of the flea beetle Aphthona lacertosa Rosenhauer (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera), an introduced biocontrol agent for leafy spurge

Mixed populations of Aphthona lacertosa and Aphthona czwalinae were released at more than 50 locations in Alberta in 1997. Two and 3 years post-release, beetle populations were primarily A. lacertosa, with A. czwalinae forming less than 0.5% of the sampled populations. Beetle densities were moderate (10–70 beetles per m²) or high (>70 beetles per m²) at 14% and more than 60% of the sampled sites in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Larger beetles had greater instantaneous egg loads (r²=0.424,P=0.003). In 2000, the largest beetles were found at moderate density sites and there was a significant negative relationship between beetle size and the time taken to accumulate a degree day threshold of 1230 (for females: r²=0.678,P=0.001). Sites with the most rapid accumulation of degree days have the greatest potential for beetle population growth based on potential fecundity. Changes in leafy spurge percent cover, stem density, and canopy height from 1997 to 2000 were assessed across sites with low (<10 beetles per m²), moderate, and high beetle densities in 2000. Sites with high beetle densities had significantly greater reductions of leafy spurge within 5 m of the release point than sites with low beetle densities (P<0.017). Damage caused by the beetles at high-density sites was often visible as a halo-shaped patch of dead leafy spurge stems. The significant overall reduction of leafy spurge within release patches makes A. lacertosa a promising biocontrol agent for leafy spurge in Alberta.     

A field experiment on dispersal of newly emerged adults ofMonochamus alternatus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Newly-emerged adults of Monochamus alternatus aged 1 to 5 days were code-numbered with lacquer paint and released by placing them on the trunks of one or two trees in a Pinus thunbergii stand at weekly intervals during the beetle emergence period from 1980 to 1983. Beetles were captured at weekly intervals from one week after the first day of release. Determinations were made on the distance and direction of beetle dispersal during a week after release and analysed by a method of Inoue (1978). When the stand canopy was closed, the rate of beetle's stay on trees was 0.56 per week. The beetles dispersed at random by walk and flight. When the pine stand was sparse, the rate of beetle's stay on trees was 0.02–0.30 per week. They dispersed at random by flight. The average distances traversed were estimated to be 7.1–37.8 m for the first week after emergence. Using other method, the average distance traversed was estimated to be 10–20 m for each week through the first 3 weeks after release. The results of stepwise multiple regression analysis and a simple field experiment suggested that the dispersal of newly-emerged beetles was affected by stand density, number of beetles emerging from individual dead trees, maximum air temperature, and precipitation.     

Life history and geographical distribution of the walnut twig beetle,Pityophthorus juglandis (Coleoptera: Scolytinae), in southern Europe

In September 2013, the walnut twig beetle (WTB) Pityophthorus juglandis Blackman, a species native to Mexico and south‐western USA, was recorded for the first time in Europe, in northern Italy. The collected adults were found to be vector of the fungus Geosmithia morbida Kola?ik, Freeland, Utley & Tisserat, an aggressive pathogen causing thousand cankers disease in walnut (Juglans spp.). To determine the geographical distribution of the WTB and the main aspects of biology, phenology and voltinism, an intensive survey of the main walnut plantations near the site of the first finding was conducted in 2014. The beetles began to fly with a mean air temperature of about 18°C (mid‐May) and continued until late October. Two partially overlapping generations occurred, with the second taking place in late September. The WTB was found in 14 of the 27 monitored walnut plantations. The infested sites were spread over four different non‐contiguous administrative provinces belonging to two regions (Veneto and Lombardy) of northern Italy. The most distant infested plantations were about 130 km apart along a west–east gradient, and about 70 km along a north–south gradient. In this respect, the distribution area of the WTB in northern Italy may be prudently estimated at about 4200 km². Molecular analysis of the collected individuals showed no genetic differences among the six sampled P. juglandis populations, suggesting that a few individuals might have arrived in Italy through a single introduction event and then spread over the territory. Given the quick mortality of infested walnuts and the wide distribution area, eradication strategies appear unrealistic. Possible strategies of biological control or local chemical treatments must be investigated.     

Dispersal ofAleochara bilineata [Col.: Staphylinidae] following inundative releases in urban gardens

Aleochara bilineata (Gyllenhal) [Coleoptera: Staphylinidae] is a common predator and endoparasite of root maggot [Diptera: Anthomyiidae] in both commercial crops and home gardens. To test dispersal activity ofA. bilineata in home gardens, marked beetles were released at rates of 0 and 1,000 in 1987 and 0, 250, 500, and 1,000/gardens/wk in 1988. Three percent of marked beetles were recaptured in release gardens. NaturalA. bilineata populations were very small in all gardens, and there was no detectable increase from 1987 to 1988. Recaptures were proportional to release rates. There was no significant difference in recapture rates between sexes. Recaptures and non-uniform distributions of markedA. bilineata in control gardens revealed that they were capable of flying at least 5 km under urban conditions, and of selecting particular gardens as suitable mating, foraging, and oviposition sites.      

Dispersal behaviour of Euwallacea nr. fornicatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) in avocado groves and estimation of lure sampling range

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The interactions of tropical soda apple mosaic tobamovirus and Gratiana boliviana (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), an introduced biological control agent of tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum)

Tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum Dunal (Solanaceae) is a South American invasive plant of rangelands, pastures and natural areas in Florida. A chrysomelid beetle from South America, Gratiana boliviana Spaeth, has been released at >300 locations in Florida for biological control of tropical soda apple since 2003. Tropical soda apple is a host of several plant viruses, including the newly described tropical soda apple mosaic virus (TSAMV). We investigated the influence of TSAMV infection of tropical soda apple plants on developmental time, leaf tissue consumption, longevity, fecundity, and feeding preference of G. boliviana, and also tested transmission of the virus by the beetle. Developmental time was approximately 10% slower, and adults consumed only about 50% as much leaf tissue, for beetles fed on infected plants compared to uninfected plants. Longevity did not differ between females reared on infected and uninfected plants, but females fed on uninfected plants produced 71% more eggs than those fed on infected plants. Adult G. boliviana preferentially fed on uninfected plants when given a choice. There was no evidence of TSAMV transmission by G. boliviana. The potential impacts of TSAMV infection on the effectiveness of G. boliviana as a biological control agent are discussed.     

Introduction and establishment of parasitoids for the biological control of the apple ermine moth, Yponomeuta malinellus (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae), in the Pacific Northwest

Four parasitoids were imported from five countries in Eurasia and released in northwestern Washington, US, to control the apple ermine moth (AEM), Yponomeuta malinellus Zeller, which colonized the Northwest around 1981. From 1988 to 1991, 95,474 individuals of Ageniaspis fuscicollis (Dalman) from France, China, Korea, and Russia were released in Washington. Parasitism of AEM increased 4- to 5-fold over that produced by preexisting natural enemies between 1989 and 1994 at 22 monitored sites. Subsequently, the wasp dispersed up to 20 km from release sites. A. fuscicollis also parasitized the cherry ermine moth, Yponomeuta padellus (L.), which was discovered in the Pacific Northwest in 1993. A total of 1813 individuals of Herpestomus brunnicornis (Gravenhorst) from France, Korea, and Japan were released in 1989–1991, and 26 wasps were recovered in 1994–1995. From 1989 to 1991, 2647 Diadegma armillata (Gravenhorst) individuals from France were released. D. armillata was recovered at one site in 1991 two months following release, but no other recoveries have been made. A total of 8274 Eurystheae scutellaris(Robineau-Desvoidy) individuals were released in 1989 to 1991. However, this tachinid has not been recovered. A consistent decline of AEM populations occurred in 1989–1995, including at sites where A. fuscicollis was not recovered, suggesting other factors also contributed to this pest’s decline. Now well established in western Washington, A. fuscicollis may help suppress future outbreaks of Y. malinellus and its congener, Y. padellus.     

The pattern and range of movement of a checkered beetle predator relative to its bark beetle prey

Theoretical studies of predator‐prey population dynamics have increasingly centered on the role of space and the movement of organisms. Yet, empirical studies have been slow to follow suit. Herein, we quantified the long‐range movement of a checkered beetle, Thanasimus dubius, which is an important predator of a pernicious forest pest, the southern pine beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis. Adult checkered beetles were marked and released at five sites and subsequently recaptured at traps baited with pine and pine beetle semiochemicals and located at distances up to 2 km away from the release point. While the pattern of recaptures‐with‐distance at each site provided a modest fit to a simple random‐diffusion model, there was a consistent discrepancy between observed and expected recaptures: a higher than expected proportion of beetles were recaptured at the more distant traps. To account for this deviation, we developed a model of diffusion that allowed for simple heterogeneity in the population of marked beetles; i.e., a slow and fast moving form of the checkered beetle. This model provided a significantly better fit to the data and formed the basis for our estimates of intra‐forest movement. We estimated that on average, one half of the checkered beetles dispersed at least 1.25 km, one third dispersed>2 km, and 5% dispersed>5 km. The source of the heterogeneous dispersal rates were partially due to differences in beetle size: smaller beetles (for both males and females) were more likely to be recaptured away from the release site than larger beetles. The southern pine beetle (prey for the checkered beetle) exhibited no significant heterogeneity in dispersal ability and provided a very good fit to the simple diffusion model. The only difference in dispersal between these two species was that checkered beetles were undergoing greater long‐distance dispersal than the pine beetles (the radius containing 95% of the dispersing individuals was 5.1 km for the checkered beetle and 2.3 km for the pine beetle). Data on the movement of these two species is used to evaluate a general model of spatial pattern formation in a homogeneous environment, and the potential of the checkered beetle as a biological control agent for the southern pine beetle.     

Establishment of an imported natural enemy,Neomusotima conspurcatalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) against an invasive weed,Old World climbing fern,Lygodium microphyllum,in Florida

Neomusotima conspurcatalis established populations against L. microphyllum at three locations in Florida during 2008. A total of 31,091 insects were released. Ten months later populations estimated at 1.6 to 8.2 million larvae per site had defoliated over 14,000 m² of L. microphyllum. Findings look promising for biocontrol of L. microphyllum in Florida.