Use of liquid chromatography to measure chlorite production by Nitrobacter winogradskyi NRCC26538

A high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique, previously developed for nitrite (NO⁻₂) and nitrate (NO⁻₃) measurements [3], was used to measure chlorite (ClO⁻₂) production by Nitrobacter winogradskyi. The determination of ClO⁻₂ by HPLC involves monitoring the column effluent with a UV detector at 214 or 254 nm. Although the absorbance of ClO⁻₂ at 214 nm was about 5 times greater than at 254 nm, interference from other compounds in the culture filtrates of N. winogradskyi contributed to an unstable detector signal. The detection limit at 254 nm for ClO⁻₂ in deionized water was about 1 μM.The measurement of ClO⁻₂ in N. winogradskyi culture filtrates was done with detection at 254 nm. The maximum concentration of ClO⁻₂ produced by anaerobically incubated cell suspensions of N. winogradskyi was about 80 μM.     

Purification and characterization of ATPase from Nitrobacter winogradskyi

An ATPase was purified from Nitrobacter winogradskyi, and some of its molecular and enzymatic properties were determined. The enzyme was composed of two subunits of 64 and 59 kDa, respectively. The enzyme had its pH optimum at 9.5 and showed a specific activity of 7 units per mg protein. This activity was about 14% and 18% of that of F1-ATPases obtained from Escherichia coli and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, respectively. The enzyme was 29% and 6% inhibited by 100 microM dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD) and 100 microM NaN3, respectively. It was not inhibited by 20 mM NaNO3.     

Emergence of a novel highly specific and catalytically efficient enzyme from a naturally promiscuous glutathione transferase

Redesign of glutathione transferases (GSTs) has led to enzymes with remarkably enhanced catalytic properties. Exchange of substrate-binding residues in GST A1-1 created a GST A4-4 mimic, called GIMFhelix, with >300-fold improved activity with nonenal and suppressed activity with other substrates. In the present investigation GIMFhelix was compared with the naturally-evolved GSTs A1-1 and A4-4 by determining catalytic efficiencies with nine alternative substrates. The enzymes can be represented by vectors in multidimensional substrate-activity space, and the vectors of GIMFhelix and GST A1-1, expressed in kcat/Km values for the alternative substrates, are essentially orthogonal. By contrast, the vectors of GIMFhelix and GST A4-4 have approximately similar lengths and directions. The broad substrate acceptance of GST A1-1 contrasts with the high selectivity of GST A4-4 and GIMFhelix for alkenal substrates. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that among the diverse substrates used, nonenal, cumene hydroperoxide, and androstenedione are major determinants in the portrayal of the three enzyme variants. These GST substrates represent diverse chemistries of naturally occurring substrates undergoing Michael addition, hydroperoxide reduction, and steroid double-bond isomerization, respectively. In terms of function, GIMFhelix is a novel enzyme compared to its progenitor GST A1-1 in spite of 94% amino-acid sequence identity between the enzymes. The redesign of GST A1-1 into GIMFhelix therefore serves as an illustration of divergent evolution leading to novel enzymes by minor structural modifications in the active site. Notwithstanding low sequence identity (60%), GIMFhelix is functionally an isoenzyme of GST A4-4.     

Phosphoribulokinase from Nitrobacter winogradskyi: activation by reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and inhibition by pyridoxal phosphate.

CO2 fixation by particle-free extracts from Nitrobacter winogradskyi increased by addition of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). Ribulose-1,5-diphosphate, however, increased CO2 fixation, even in the absence of NADH. Phosphoribulokinase (EC 2.7.1.19) was the enzyme of Nitrobacter extracts that was activated specifically by NADH. Pyridoxal-5-phosphate inhibited both CO2 fixation and NADH-activated phosphoribulokinase from Nitrobacter. However, it did not affect phosphoribulokinase from spinach leaves. Since the spinach enzyme had also no requirement for reduced pyridine nucleotides, it appears that pyridoxal phosphate interferes only with the binding of NADH and not with the binding of ribulose-5-phosphate and adenosine-5'-triphosphate. The regulation of phosphoribulokinase activity by NADH provided Nitrobacter with an energy-dependent control mechanism of CO2 assimilation.     

Reduction of cytochromes by nitrite in electron-transport particles from Nitrobacter winogradskyi: proposal of a mechanism for H+ translocation.

1. A novel component in the respiratory chain of Nitrobacter winogradskyi was identified. This component absorbs maximally at 552.5 nm when in its reduced form, has an Eo' (pH7.0) value of-110mV and undergoes reduction by a mechanism involving the transfer of a single electron. 2. Degrees of reduction of cytochromes c and a1 in electron-transport (ET) particles were monitored during the course of NO2- oxidation, and the effects of ADP together with Pi, oligomycin and of carbonyl cyanide phenylhydrazone were determined. 3. The influences of ionophorous antibiotics, NH4Cl and cyclohexylamine hydrochloride on the reductions of cytochromes c and a1 by NO2- indicate that the flow of reducing equivalents from cytochrome a1 (+350mV) to cytochrome c (+270mV) is facilitated by deltapsi, the electrical component of the protonmotive force. 4. Cytochromes c and a1 in ET particles are reduced by the non-physiological reductant KBH4 in a manner similar to that observed with the physiological reductant NO2-. 5. To account both for the observed cytochrome reductions and for the translocation of H+ ions which accompanies NO2- oxidation, a mechanism is proposed which involves the transfer of a hydride equivalent (H+ plus 2e) inward across the membrane of the ET particle in response to deltapsi.     

Cytochromes c of Nitrobacter winogradskyi and Thiobacillus novellus: structure, function and evolution.

The amino acid sequences of Thiobacillus novellus and Nitrobacter winogradskyi cytochromes c have been compared with those of cytochromes c from several other organisms. The two bacterial cytochromes resemble eukaryotic cytochromes c; 49 amino-acid residues are identical between T. novellus and horse cytochromes c, and 50 residues identical between N. winogradskyi and horse cytochromes c. However, their reactivity with cow cytochrome c oxidase is about 80% lower than the reactivity of eukaryotic cytochromes c with the cow mitochondrial oxidase, while they react with yeast cytochrome c peroxidase as rapidly as eukaryotic cytochromes c. The numbers of identical amino-acid residues between T. novellus and animal cytochromes c are 45-53 and those between N. winogradskyi and animal cytochromes c 47-53, while those between the two bacterial cytochromes and yeast and protozoan cytochromes c are around 40. Thus, N. winogradskyi and T. novellus cytochromes c are more similar to animal cytochromes c than to yeast and protozoan cytochromes c on the basis of the amino-acid sequence.     

Purification of a flavoprotein having NADPH-cytochrome c reductase and transhydrogenase activities from Nitrobacter winogradskyi and its molecular and enzymatic properties

A flavoenzyme which showed NADPH-cytochrome c reductase (NADPH-cytochrome c oxidoreductase EC 1.6.2.4) and transhydrogenase (NADPH-NAD⁺ oxidoreductase, EC 1.6.1.1) activities was purified to an electrophoretically homogeneous state from Nitrobacter winogradskyi. The reductase was a flavoprotein which contained one FAD per molecule but no FMN. The oxidized form of the enzyme showed absorption maxima at 272, 375 and 459 nm with a shoulder at 490 nm, its molecular weight was estimated to be 36,000 by SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and the enzyme seemed to exist as a dimer in aqueous solution. The enzyme catalyzed reduction of cytochrome c, DCIP and benzylviologen by NADPH, oxidation of NADPH with menadione and duroquinone, and showed transhydrogenase activity. NADH was less effective than NADPH as the electron donor in the reactions catalyzed by the enzyme. The NADPH-reduction catalyzed by the enzyme of N. winogradskyi cytochrome c-550 and horse cytochrome c was stimulated by spinach ferredoxin. The enzyme reduced NADP⁺ with reduced spinach ferredoxin and benzylviologen radical.Abbreviations DCIP dichlorophenolindophenol - Tris trishydroxy-methylaminomethane - Mops 3-(N-morpholino) propanesulfonic acid - SDS sodium dodecylsufate     

Purification and characterization of chlorite dismutase: a novel oxygen-generating enzyme

A novel enzyme that catalyzes the disproportionation of chlorite into chloride and oxygen was purified from a gram-negative bacterium, strain GR-1 to homogeneity. A four-step purification procedure comprising Q-Sepharose, hydroxyapatite, and phenyl-Superose chromatography and ultrafiltration resulted in a 13.7-fold purified enzyme with a final specific activity of 2.0 mmol min^–1 (mg protein)^–1. The dismutase obeyed Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The V _max and K _m calculated for chlorite were 2,200 U (mg protein)^–1 and 170 μM, respectively. Dismutase activity was inhibited by hydroxylamine, cyanide, and azide, but not by 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole. Chlorite dismutase had a molecular mass of 140 kDa and consisted of four 32-kDa subunits. The enzyme was red-colored and had a Soret peak at 392 nm. Per subunit, it contained 0.9 molecule of protoheme IX and 0.7 molecule of iron. Chlorite dismutase displayed maxima for activity at pH 6.0 and 30° C. Received: 9 April 1996 / Accepted: 12 August 1996     

Characterization of a catalytically efficient acidic RNA-cleaving deoxyribozyme

We previously demonstrated—through the isolation of RNA-cleaving deoxyribozymes by in vitro selection that are catalytically active in highly acidic solutions—that DNA, despite its chemical simplicity, could perform catalysis under challenging chemical conditions [Liu,Z., Mei,S.H., Brennan,J.D. and Li,Y. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 7539–7545]. One remarkable DNA molecule therefrom is pH4DZ1, a self-cleaving deoxyribozyme that exhibits a k_obs of ~1 min⁻¹ at pH 3.8. In this study, we carried out a series of experiments to examine the sequence and catalytic properties of this acidic deoxyribozyme. Extensive nucleotide truncation experiments indicated that pH4DZ1 was a considerably large deoxyribozyme, requiring ~80 out of the original 123 nt for the optimal catalytic activity. A reselection experiment identified ten absolutely conserved nucleotides that are distributed in three catalytically crucial sequence elements. In addition, a trans deoxyribozyme was successfully designed. Comparison of the observed rate constant of pH4DZ1 with experimentally determined rate constant for the uncatalyzed reaction revealed that pH4DZ1 achieved a rate enhancement of ~10⁶-fold. This study provides valuable information about this low-pH-functional deoxyribozyme and paves way for further structural and mechanistic characterization of this unique catalytic DNA.     

Rat oocyte tissue plasminogen activator is a catalytically efficient enzyme in the absence of fibrin. Endogenous potentiation of enzyme activity

Rat oocytes synthesize tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) in response to stimuli which initiate meiotic maturation. Purified tPA exhibits optimal activity only in the presence of fibrin or fibrin substitutes. Because oocytes are not exposed to fibrin in situ, we investigated the possible stimulation of rat oocyte tPA activity by other endogenous factor(s). Oocytes were obtained from immature female rats which were induced to ovulate with gonadotropins. tPA activity was measured by the plasminogen-dependent cleavage of a chromogenic substrate. Measurements of kinetic parameters with Glu- or Lys-plasminogen revealed a Km for the rat oocyte enzyme of 1.3-2.1 microM compared with 23-24 microM for purified human tPA. Inclusion of the soluble fibrin substitute polylysine lowered the Km of human tPA by 30-fold (0.8 microM) but had no effect on the oocyte tPA Km. Polylysine had no significant effect on the Vmax values. The rate of plasminogen activation catalyzed by oocyte tPA was increased only 4.3-fold by fibrin while fibrin stimulated purified human tPA activity by 15.2-fold. After fractionation of oocyte extract by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, polylysine enhanced oocyte tPA activity as seen by casein zymography. tPA activity in the conditioned medium of a rat insulinoma cell line was also not stimulated with polylysine prior to fractionation by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. These data suggest that extravascular cells which elaborate tPA may produce stimulatory factor(s) which allow for full tPA activity at physiological concentrations of plasminogen in the absence of fibrin.     

Myosin phosphatase: Unexpected functions of a long-known enzyme

Myosin phosphatase (MP) holoenzyme is a Ser/Thr specific enzyme, which is the member of protein phosphatase type 1 (PP1) family and composed of a PP1 catalytic subunit (PP1c/PPP1CB) and a myosin phosphatase targeting subunit (MYPT1/PPP1R12A). PP1c is required for the catalytic activity of the holoenzyme, while MYPT1 regulates MP through targeting the holoenzyme to its substrates. Above the well-characterized function of MP, as the major regulator of smooth muscle contractility mediating the dephosphorylation of 20 kDa myosin light chain, accumulating data support its role in other, non-contractile functions. In this review, we summarize the scaffold function of MP holoenzyme and its roles in processes such as cell cycle, development, gene expression regulation and neurotransmitter release. In particular, we highlight novel interacting proteins of MYPT1 and pathophysiological functions of MP relevant to tumorigenesis, insulin resistance and neurodegenerative disorders.This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Phosphatases as Critical Regulators for Cellular Homeostasis edited by Prof. Peter Ruvolo and Dr. Veerle Janssens.     

Unexpected diversity of RNase P, an ancient tRNA processing enzyme: Challenges and prospects

For an enzyme functioning predominantly in a seemingly housekeeping role of 5′ tRNA maturation, RNase P displays a remarkable diversity in subunit make-up across the three domains of life. Despite the protein complexity of this ribonucleoprotein enzyme increasing dramatically from bacteria to eukarya, the catalytic function rests with the RNA subunit during evolution. However, the recent demonstration of a protein-only human mitochondrial RNase P has added further intrigue to the compositional variability of this enzyme. In this review, we discuss some possible reasons underlying the structural diversity of the active sites, and use them as thematic bases for elaborating new directions to understand how functional variations might have contributed to the complex evolution of RNase P.     

Nanosecond spectroscopy of a dimeric enzyme: plasma amine oxidase.

The fluorescence dye 1-anilino-naphthalene-8-sulphonic acid (ANS) was used as a probe of non-polar binding sites in the enzyme plasma amine oxidase. Steady fluorescence measurements indicate that ANS binds to a single binding site of the dimeric enzyme with a dissociation constant of 5 microns. This binding site is different from the catalytic binding site. Nanosecond emission anisotropy measurements were performed on the ANS-enzyme in an effort to detect independent rotation of the subunits in the native enzyme. The observed rotational correlation time (phi = 105 ns) corresponds to the rotation of a rigid dimeric macromolecule. A rotational correlation time of 120 ns was obtained with the enzyme labelled with pyrenebutyric acid. It is concluded that the dimeric enzyme does not exhibit any modes of flexibility due to independent rotation of the subunits in the nanosecond range.     

Maintenance Energy Demand and Starvation Recovery Dynamics of Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrobacter winogradskyi Cultivated in a Retentostat with Complete Biomass Retention

Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrobacter winogradskyi (strain “Engel”) were grown in ammonia-limited and nitrite-limited conditions, respectively, in a retentostat with complete biomass retention at 25°C and pH 8. Fitting the retentostat biomass and oxygen consumption data of N. europaea and N. winogradskyi to the linear equation for substrate utilization resulted in up to eight-times-lower maintenance requirements compared to the maintenance energy demand (m) calculated from chemostat experiments. Independent of the growth rate at different stages of such a retention culture, the maximum specific oxygen consumption rate measured by mass spectrometric analysis of inlet and outlet gas oxygen content always amounted to approximately 45 μmol of O₂ mg⁻¹ of biomass-C · h⁻¹ for both N. europaea and N. winogradskyi. When bacteria were starved for different time periods (up to 3 months), the spontaneous respiratory activity after an ammonia or nitrite pulse decreased with increasing duration of the previous starvation time period, but the observed decrease was many times faster for N. winogradskyi than for N. europaea. Likewise, the velocity of resuscitation decreased with extended time periods of starvation. The increase in oxygen consumption rates during resuscitation referred to the reviving population only, since in parallel no significant increase in the cell concentrations was detectable. N. europaea more readily recovers from starvation than N. winogradskyi, explaining the occasionally observed nitrite accumulation in the environment after ammonia becomes available. From chloramphenicol (100 μg · ml⁻¹) inhibition experiments with N. winogradskyi, it has been concluded that energy-starved cells must have a lower protein turnover rate than nonstarved cells. As pointed out by Stein and Arp (L. Y. Stein and D. J. Arp, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:1514–1521, 1998), nitrifying bacteria in soil have to cope with extremely low nutrient concentrations. Therefore, a chemostat is probably not a suitable tool for studying their physiological properties during a long-lasting nutrient shortage. In comparison with chemostats, retentostats offer a more realistic approach with respect to substrate provision and availability.     

Structure and evolution of a novel dimeric enzyme from a clinically important bacterial pathogen

Dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) catalyzes the first committed step of the lysine biosynthetic pathway. The tetrameric structure of DHDPS is thought to be essential for enzymatic activity, as isolated dimeric mutants of Escherichia coli DHDPS possess less than 2.5% that of the activity of the wild-type tetramer. It has recently been proposed that the dimeric form lacks activity due to increased dynamics. Tetramerization, by buttressing two dimers together, reduces dynamics in the dimeric unit and explains why all active bacterial DHDPS enzymes to date have been shown to be homo-tetrameric. However, in this study we demonstrate for the first time that DHDPS from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) exists in a monomer-dimer equilibrium in solution. Fluorescence-detected analytical ultracentrifugation was employed to show that the dimerization dissociation constant of MRSA-DHDPS is 33 nm in the absence of substrates and 29 nm in the presence of (S)-aspartate semialdehyde (ASA), but is 20-fold tighter in the presence of the substrate pyruvate (1.6 nm). The MRSA-DHDPS dimer exhibits a ping-pong kinetic mechanism (k(cat)=70+/-2 s(-1), K(m)(Pyruvate)=0.11+/-0.01 mm, and K(m)(ASA)=0.22+/-0.02 mm) and shows ASA substrate inhibition with a K(si)(ASA) of 2.7+/-0.9 mm. We also demonstrate that unlike the E. coli tetramer, the MRSA-DHDPS dimer is insensitive to lysine inhibition. The near atomic resolution (1.45 A) crystal structure confirms the dimeric quaternary structure and reveals that the dimerization interface of the MRSA enzyme is more extensive in buried surface area and noncovalent contacts than the equivalent interface in tetrameric DHDPS enzymes from other bacterial species. These data provide a detailed mechanistic insight into DHDPS catalysis and the evolution of quaternary structure of this important bacterial enzyme.     

Energy-conserving reactions in phosphorylating electron-transport particles from Nitrobacter winogradskyi. Activation of nitrite oxidation by the electrical component of the protonmotive force.

1. In electron-transport particles (ET particles) prepared from Nitrobacter winogradskyi, the uncoupling agent carbonyl cyanide phenylhydrazone increased the rate of NADH oxidation but decreased the rate of oxidation of NO2-. Its effectiveness in stimulating NADH oxidation closely paralleled its effectiveness in inhibiting NO2- oxidation. 2. In the presence of ADP and phosphate the oxidation of NADH was stimulated, whereas the oxidation of NO2- was inhibited. In the presence of excess of Pi the concentration dependence with respect to ADP was the same for acceleration of NADH oxidation and inhibition of NO2- oxidation. 3. Oligomycin inhibited NADH oxidation and stimulated the oxidation of NO2-. The concentration of oligomycin required to produce half-maximal effect in both systems was the same. 4. The apparent Km for NO2- was not affected by ADP together with Pi, by uncoupling agent or by oligomycin. 5. With NADH as substrate, classical respiratory control was observed. With NO2- as substrate the respiratory-control ratio was less than unity. 6. A reversible uptake of H+ accompanied the oxidation of NO2- by ET particles. 7. In the presence of NH4Cl or cyclohexylamine hydrochloride, H+ uptake was abolished and increased rates of NO2- oxidation were observed. When valinomycin was present in the reaction medium, low concentrations of NH4Cl inhibited NO2- oxidation. 8. Pretreatment of ET particles with oligomycin enhanced the stimulation of NO2- oxidation induced by NH4Cl or by cyclohexylamine hydrochloride. Pretreatment with the uncoupler carbonyl cyanide phenylhydrazone prevented these stimulations. 9. In the presence of dianemycin together with K+, the uptake of H+ was abolished and the rate of NO2- oxidation was increased. In contrast, in the presence of valinomycin together with K+, the uptake of H+ was increased, and the rate of NO2- oxidation decreased. 10. Sodium tetraphenylboron was found to be an inhibitor of NO2- oxidation, but caused a stimulation of NADH oxidation which was dependent on the presence of NH4Cl or cyclohexylamine hydrochloride. 11. It is concluded that the enhanced rate of NO2- oxidation observed in the absence of energy-dissipating processes clearly relates to some state before the involvement of adenine nucleotides, and it is suggested that the oxidation of NO2- generates a protonmotive force, the electrical component of which controls the rate of NO2- oxidation.     

Maintenance energy demand and starvation recovery dynamics of Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrobacter winogradskyi cultivated in a retentostat with complete biomass retention.

Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrobacter winogradskyi (strain "Engel") were grown in ammonia-limited and nitrite-limited conditions, respectively, in a retentostat with complete biomass retention at 25 degrees C and pH 8. Fitting the retentostat biomass and oxygen consumption data of N. europaea and N. winogradskyi to the linear equation for substrate utilization resulted in up to eight-times-lower maintenance requirements compared to the maintenance energy demand (m) calculated from chemostat experiments. Independent of the growth rate at different stages of such a retention culture, the maximum specific oxygen consumption rate measured by mass spectrometric analysis of inlet and outlet gas oxygen content always amounted to approximately 45 micromol of O2 mg-1 of biomass-C x h-1 for both N. europaea and N. winogradskyi. When bacteria were starved for different time periods (up to 3 months), the spontaneous respiratory activity after an ammonia or nitrite pulse decreased with increasing duration of the previous starvation time period, but the observed decrease was many times faster for N. winogradskyi than for N. europaea. Likewise, the velocity of resuscitation decreased with extended time periods of starvation. The increase in oxygen consumption rates during resuscitation referred to the reviving population only, since in parallel no significant increase in the cell concentrations was detectable. N. europaea more readily recovers from starvation than N. winogradskyi, explaining the occasionally observed nitrite accumulation in the environment after ammonia becomes available. From chloramphenicol (100 microg x ml-1) inhibition experiments with N. winogradskyi, it has been concluded that energy-starved cells must have a lower protein turnover rate than nonstarved cells. As pointed out by Stein and Arp (L. Y. Stein and D. J. Arp, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:1514-1521, 1998), nitrifying bacteria in soil have to cope with extremely low nutrient concentrations. Therefore, a chemostat is probably not a suitable tool for studying their physiological properties during a long-lasting nutrient shortage. In comparison with chemostats, retentostats offer a more realistic approach with respect to substrate provision and availability.     

The dimeric form of flavocytochrome P450 BM3 is catalytically functional as a fatty acid hydroxylase

In the model P450 BM3 system, the P450 is fused to its diflavin reductase partner in a single polypeptide. BM3 dimerizes in solution, but the catalytic relevance of the phenomenon was hitherto unknown. We show that BM3 fatty acid hydroxylase specific activity decreases sharply at low enzyme concentrations, consistent with separation of active dimer into inactive monomer. Reductase-dependent specific activities are maintained or enhanced at low concentration, suggesting inter-flavin electron transfer is unaffected. Fatty acid oxidation is reconstituted by mixing inactive oxygenase (A264H) and FMN-depleted (G570D) mutants, demonstrating that inter-monomer (FMN(1)-to-heme(2)) electron transfer supports oxygenase activity in the BM3 dimer.