The genus Menisporopsis in Venezuela with the addition of M. anisospora anam. sp. nov. from a palm tree

Menisporopsis anisospora anam. sp. nov., found on decaying petiole of fallen leaves of Wettinia praemosa in a cloud forest in Venezuela, is described and illustrated. This is characterized by having heterosporous conidia (allantoid, fusiform, subsigmoid, sublunate, vermiform to irregular) with unequal sides, subtruncate or truncated at base, attenuate at apex, one-celled, hyaline with 2–4-setulae. Two other Menisporopsis species are recorded for the first time from Venezuela and a key to the described species is provided.     

Geographic distribution and host plants of Raoiella indica and associated mite species in northern Venezuela

The red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), is an invasive pest in the New World, where it is currently considered a serious threat to coconut and banana crops. It was first reported from northern Venezuela in 2007. To determine its current distribution in this country, surveys were carried out from October 2008 to April 2010 on coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), banana (Musa spp.), ornamental plants and weeds in northern Venezuela. Higher population levels of RPM were registered on commercial coconut farms in Falcón and Sucre states but also on other plant species naturally growing along the coastal line in Anzoategui, Aragua, Carabobo, Monagas and Nueva Esparta states. Out of 34 botanical species evaluated, all RPM stages were observed only on eight arecaceous, one musaceous and one streliziaceous species, indicating that the pest developed and reproduced only on these plants. Mite specimens found on weeds were considered spurious events, as immature stages of the pest were never found on these. Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) was the most frequent predatory mite associated with RPM in all sampling sites. The results indicate that RPM has spread to extensive areas of northern Venezuela since its initial detection in Güiria, Sucre state. Considering the report of this pest mite in northern Brazil in the late 2009, additional samplings in southern Venezuela should be carried out, to evaluate the possible presence of RPM also in that region.     

Virus Particles in Apparently Healthy Peregrinus maidis

Virus-like particles were found in apparently healthy Peregrinus maidis (Ashm.) in Venezuela. The particles were observed in the salivary gland, intestine, mycetome, adipose tissue, ovary, and hemolymph. In the cells, the particles occurred in the cytoplasm singly, in groups, free or within vesicles, and in hexagonally arranged crystals. In P. maidis from Hawaii such particles were not found. However, in these insects, single particles or crystals were observed after injecting suspensions of intestines from P. maidis from Venezuela. The particles were not observed in insects feeding on plants soiled with excretions from particle-containing P. maidis. Particles in organs of insects or in pellets of intestines were polygonal and showed a weakly contrasted envelope and a highly contrasted core. The particles had a diameter of 54 ± 9 mμ. They are believed to represent a Peregrinus virus causing latent infection.     

Molecular characterisation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in the First National Survey of Anti-tuberculosis Drug Resistance from Venezuela

Background

Molecular typing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains has become a valuable tool in the epidemiology of tuberculosis (TB) by allowing detection of outbreaks, tracking of epidemics, identification of genotypes and transmission events among patients who would have remained undetected by conventional contact investigation. This is the first genetic biodiversity study of M. tuberculosis in Venezuela. Thus, we investigated the genetic patterns of strains isolated in the first survey of anti-tuberculosis drug-resistance realised as part of the Global Project of Anti-tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance (WHO/IUATLD).

Results

Clinical isolates (670/873) were genotyped by spoligotyping. The results were compared with the international spoligotyping database (SpolDB4). Multidrug resistant (MDR) strains (14/18) were also analysed by IS6110-RFLP assays, and resistance to isoniazid and rifampicin was characterised. Spoligotyping grouped 82% (548/670) of the strains into 59 clusters. Twenty new spoligotypes (SITs) specific to Venezuela were identified. Eight new inter-regional clusters were created. The Beijing genotype was not found. The genetic network shows that the Latin American and Mediterranean family constitutes the backbone of the genetic TB population-structure in Venezuela, responsible of >60% of total TB cases studied. MDR was 0.5% in never treated patients and 13.5% in previously treated patients. Mutations in rpoB gene and katG genes were detected in 64% and 43% of the MDR strains, respectively. Two clusters were found to be identical by the four different analysis methods, presumably representing cases of recent transmission of MDR tuberculosis.

Conclusion

This study gives a first overview of the M. tuberculosis strains circulating in Venezuela during the first survey of anti-tuberculosis drug-resistance. It may aid in the creation of a national database that will be a valuable support for further studies.     

The saurian malarias of Venezuela: Haemosporidian parasites of gekkonid lizards

Telford S. P., Jr. 1978. The saurian malarias of Venezuela: haemosporidian parasites of gekkonid lizards. International Journal for Parasitology8: 341–353. Five haemosporidian species were found among 185 gekkonid lizards from Estados Portuguesa, Cojedes and Aragua, Venezuela, four of which were new to science. A pigmented Plasmodium species is described from Gonatodes taniae of Estado Aragua. It produces 8–20 merozoites in variably shaped schizonts, and elongate, irregularly margined prematuration gametocytes which contract to form round to broadly elongate mature gametocytes. Phyllodactylus ventralis of Estado Portuguesa is parasitized by two new unpigmented malarial species. One produces 11–35 merozoites in schizonts which are often rounded or elongated, occasionally fan-shaped. Gametocytes are always elongated and usually lie diagonally across one end of the host cell or laterally to the nucleus. The second species forms rounded mature schizonts nearly filled with 14–32 merozoites. The sexual stages are usually round or oval, rarely elongate. Plasmodium aurulentum Telford, 1971 was found in Thecadactylus raplcaudus of Estados Portuguesa and Cojedes. A single Thecadactylus from Cojedes was infected by a haemosporidian species of uncertain generic identity which resembles a parasite found earlier in a Panamanian gecko.     

Two new species of the side necked turtle genus,Bairdemys (Pleurodira, Podocnemididae), from the Miocene of Venezuela

The side-necked turtle genusBairdemys (Podocnemididae,Shweboemys Group) from the Miocene of Venezuela and Puerto Rico is revised, and four species are diagnosed on the basis of skull characters; two are de-scribed as new.B. hartsteini Gaffney &; Wood, 2002, from the Cibao Formation of Puerto Rico, is characterized by a higher skull, with a straight labial ridge and a premaxillary notch;B. venezuelensis (Wood &; Díaz de Gamero 1971), from the Urumaco Formation of Venezuela, is characterized by the absence of a premaxillary notch, a high anterior triturating surface convexity, a deep posterior triturating surface concavity, and a short pterygoid mid-line contact;B. sanchezi, new species, from the Urumaco Formation of Venezuela, is characterized by a very low anterior triturating surface convexity and shallow posterior triturating surface concavity, a premaxillary notch, small size, and extensive temporal and cheek emargination;B. winklerae, new species, from the Urumaco Formation of Venezuela, is characterized by an elongate, narrow snout, with a concave labial ridge, and no premaxillary notch. Based on osteological and bone histological results, an additional strongly crushed skull and associated cara-pace fragment of a previously undetermined podocnemidid from the Urumaco Formation of Venezuela can be further referred toPodocnemis or a closely related taxon — again underscoring the importance of this formation as one of the major fossil lagerstätten of turtles in South America.     

Distribution of GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1 and TP53 disease-associated gene variants in native and urban Venezuelan populations

The contemporary Venezuelan population is the product of major admixture process across various historical events, which has provided it a particular genetic background. The aim of this study concerns the analysis of glutathione S-transferase (GST) GSTM1, GSTP1 and GSTT1 genetic variants and five polymorphisms at the TP53 gene, which are related to cancer susceptibility, in an urban/admixed population and five Amerindian tribes (Bari, Panare, Pemon, Warao and Wayuu) from Venezuela. Genotyping was carried out in 120 individuals from an urban sample and 188 Amerindians. The analysis performed on TP53 haplotype and GST allele distribution showed a close correlation for Pemon and Warao populations, while Bari group appears isolated from the other populations. GSTT1 null variant frequency in our admixed (11%) and native samples (0.0–11.4%) was lower when compared with Caucasians, Africans and Asians. Frequency of the GSTP1*Val cancer-associated allele found in Bari (88.6%) and Panare (63.0%) is of the highest so far reported. Fourteen TP53 haplotypes were observed in the admixed populations, whereas only 3 to 5 in Amerindians. To our knowledge this is the first report of GST polymorphisms and TP53 haplotype distribution in Venezuelans. The distribution of most of analyzed polymorphisms in the urban sample is consistent with the admixed origin of the present-day population of Venezuela. While, the inter-ethnic variations in genetic polymorphisms found in Native American tribes seem to be the result of the influence of demographic factors. These results provide additional data for undertaking ethnographic and disease association studies in Venezuela.     

Multiple Paternity in a Reintroduced Population of the Orinoco Crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) at the El Frío Biological Station,Venezuela

The success of a reintroduction program is determined by the ability of individuals to reproduce and thrive. Hence, an understanding of the mating system and breeding strategies of reintroduced species can be critical to the success, evaluation and effective management of reintroduction programs. As one of the most threatened crocodile species in the world, the Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) has been reduced to only a few wild populations in the Llanos of Venezuela and Colombia. One of these populations was founded by reintroduction at Caño Macanillal and La Ramera lagoon within the El Frío Biological Station, Venezuela. Twenty egg clutches of C. intermedius were collected at the El Frío Biological Station for incubation in the lab and release of juveniles after one year. Analyzing 17 polymorphic microsatellite loci from 335 hatchlings we found multiple paternity in C. intermedius, with half of the 20 clutches fathered by two or three males. Sixteen mothers and 14 fathers were inferred by reconstruction of multilocus parental genotypes. Our findings showed skewed paternal contributions to multiple-sired clutches in four of the clutches (40%), leading to an overall unequal contribution of offspring among fathers with six of the 14 inferred males fathering 90% of the total offspring, and three of those six males fathering more than 70% of the total offspring. Our results provide the first evidence of multiple paternity occurring in the Orinoco crocodile and confirm the success of reintroduction efforts of this critically endangered species in the El Frío Biological Station, Venezuela.     

Treerunners,cryptic lizards of the Plica plica group (Squamata,Sauria, Tropiduridae) of?northern?South?America

The arboreal, Neotropical lizard Plica plica (Linnaeus, 1758) has been long considered a widespread species with a distribution east of the Andes. A preliminary examination of 101 specimens from about 28 locations mostly north of the Amazon suggests that Plica plica is a cryptic species complex with taxa that can be distinguished on the basis of the number of scale rows at mid-body; the arrangement, shape and ornamentation of scales on the snout; the number of lamellae on the fourth toe; the number of subocular plates; as well as other commonly used external morphological traits. The allopatric species discussed here are concordant with northern South American geography. Plica plica (Linnaeus, 1758) is associated with the Guiana Shield (Suriname, Guyana and Venezuela). A second species, P. caribeana sp. n. is associated with the Caribbean Coastal Range of Venezuela including Trinidad and Tobago. A third, distinctive species, P. rayi sp. n. is associated with the middle Orinoco at the eastern edge of the Guiana Shield. Two other species, P. kathleenae sp. n. and P. medemi sp. n., each based upon a single specimen, one from the Sierra Acarai Mountains of Guyana, and the other from southern Meta, Colombia are described. In addition to morphological analyses, we sequenced 12S and 16S rDNA gene fragments from one Plica plica from Trinidad to assess its relationship and taxonomy to other mainland Plica cf. plica. The results suggest Plica caribeana sp. n. likely diverged prior to the separation of Trinidad from northern Venezuela. Isolation in the Caribbean Coastal Range during its rapid uplift in the late Miocene, combined with a marine incursion into northern Venezuela may have contributed to their genetic divergence from other populations.     

Revision of the genus Froesia (Quiinaceae)

Froesia venezuelensis, a new species from Venezuela, is described, and the two previously known species ofFroesia are revised.     

Description of a new species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ixodes</Emphasis> Latreille, 1795 (Acari: Ixodidae) and redescription of <Emphasis Type="Italic">I. lasallei</Emphasis> Méndez &amp; Ortiz, 1958, parasites of agoutis and pacas (Rodentia: Dasyproctidae,Cuniculidae) in Central and South America

Ixodes bocatorensis n. sp. (Acari: Ixodidae), is described based on adults ex agoutis (Rodentia: Dasyproctidae), pacas (Rodentia: Cuniculidae) and “tapir and sloth” (Perissodactyla: Tapiridae and Pilosa) from Colombia, Panama and Venezuela. Adults of I. bocatorensis n. sp. are similar to those of I. lasallei Méndez & Ortiz, 1958 but can be distinguished by the scutum dimensions, punctation pattern, gnathosoma and palpi measurements and their ratios, basis capituli anterior angle and shape of the spur of palpal segment I ventrally. For comparative purposes the female of I. lasallei is redescribed and the true male of this species is described for the first time. Studied adults of I. lasallei were found on agoutis, pacas and ocelot (Carnivora: Felidae) in Colombia, Peru and Venezuela.     

A new species of Ophiodothella on Casearia from Venezuela

Ophiodothella caseariae sp. nov. from leaves of Casearia tremula in Venezuela is described and illustrated.     

Taxonomy of the genus Aspasia Lindley (Orchidaceae: Oncidieae)

The genusAspasia (Orchidaceae: Oncidieae) consists of five species of epiphytic orchids of Central and South America. The genus is compared with closely related genera of the tribe Oncidieae.Aspasia epidendroides is found in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and western Panama.Aspasia principissa is found in central and eastern Panama and adjacent Colombia.Aspasia psittacina is endemic to western Ecuador.Aspasia variegata is found in Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, Surinam, and Brazil.Aspasia lunata is known only from Brazil.     

Geographic patterns of species richness of diurnal raptors in Venezuela

Knowledge of a species’ geographic distribution is crucial to assessing its vulnerability. It is also important to know if protected areas provide effective protection for raptor species. Here, we examine the species richness (S) patterns, factors predicting S and the effectiveness of protected areas (EPA) in the conservation of diurnal raptors in Venezuela. We modeled geographic distributions (SDM) of 64 raptor species using ecological niche models. Nine climatic and seven landscape metrics were used as environmental predictors. SDM were stacked to examine S and predictors of S were investigated using regression models. This study evaluated S patterns in the 13 bioregions defined for Venezuela. A gap analysis was performed to evaluate the EPA in the conservation of raptor diversity. Forty species showed a continuous distribution, whereas as disjunct distributions were observed in 24 species. Species richness differed among bioregions; six pairwise compared bioregions did not show differences. Guyana Massif and the mountains of northern Venezuela had the highest species richness. Landscape features, specifically canopy height, land cover and terrain slope explained most of the species richness. Environmental heterogeneity affected the distribution of S and is therefore important in conservation planning for Neotropical raptors. Responses from environmental variables used to predict S were scale dependent; it is necessary to standardize methods/experimental design to study the biogeography of raptors. Priority-setting for the conservation of raptors in Venezuela must consider restricted range species, even if they are not threatened. A new territorial ordering is urgent to improve the protection of this group of birds.     

New Glyptodont from the Codore Formation (Pliocene), Falcón State, Venezuela, its relationship with theAsterostemma problem, and the paleobiogeography of the Glyptodontinae

One of the basal Glyptodontidae groups is represented by the Propalaehoplophorinae (late Oligocene — middle Miocene), whose genera (Propalaehoplophorus, Eucinepeltus, Metopotoxus, Cochlops, andAsterostemma) were initially recognized in Argentinian Patagonia. Among these,Asterostemma was characterized by its wide latitudinal distribution, ranging from southernmost (Patagonia) to northernmost (Colombia, Venezuela) South America. However, the generic assignation of the Miocene species from Colombia and Venezuela (A.? acostae, A. gigantea, andA. venezolensis) was contested by some authors, who explicitly accepted the possibility that these species could correspond to a new genus, different from those recognized in southern areas. A new comparative study of taxa from Argentinian Patagonia, Colombia and Venezuela (together with the recognition of a new genus and species for the Pliocene of the latter country) indicates that the species in northern South America are not Propalaehoplophorinae, but represent the first stages in the cladogenesis of the Glyptodontinae glyptodontids, the history of which was heretofore restricted to the late Miocene — early Holocene of southernmost South America. Accordingly, we propose the recognition of the new genusBoreostemma for the species from northern South America and the restriction ofAsterostemma to the Miocene of Patagonia. Thus, the available data indicate that the Glyptodontinae would in fact have arisen in the northernmost regions of this continent. Their arrival to more southerly areas coincides with the acme of the “Age of Southern Plains”. The Propalaehoplophorinae are geographically restricted to Patagonia.     

A new species of besleria (Gesneriaceae) from Venezuela

Besleria mortoniana, from the Peninsula of Paria, Estado Sucre, Venezuela, is described as new.     

A New Species of Pterandra (Malpighiaceae) from the Guayana Highland

Pterandra sericea, a new species from southeastern Venezuela and western Guyana, is described, illustrated, and compared with its nearest relative,P. flavescens, another species of the Guayana Highland.     

Sandemania hoehnei (Melastomataceae: Tibouchineae): Taxonomy,distribution, and biology

Sandemania Gleason, a monotypic melastome genus of Brazil, Venezuela, and Peru, is described and illustrated with accompanying notes on its habitat, distribution, reproductive biology, and tribal and generic relationships.Sandemania belongs in the Tibouchineae tribe where it is related toComolia andMacairea.     

Two new species of Rhynchospora section Psilocarya (Cyperaceae)

Two new species ofRhynchospora sectionPsilocarya are described and illustrated.Rhynchospora eburnea is known from Amazonian Venezuela and nearby Brazil whileRhynchospora waspamensis is known only from eastern Zelaya, Nicaragua. These species are distinguished from most of the species of sectionPsilocarya by means of a key to the species found in the Americas south to and including the Amazon Basin.