Fisheries bioeconomics: why is it so widely misunderstood?

Many fisheries management systems, even when based on apparently sound science, have failed to prevent severe overfishing. And even when successful in this sense, such systems have frequently resulted in a large degree of excess fishing capacity. The reason for these failures can often be found in a lack of consideration of the economic incentives affecting fishermen. Specifically, when forced to compete for a fixed total annual catch quota (TAC), fishermen are motivated to fish at high intensity, and to expand the fishing power of their vessels. Individual fishing quotas (IFQs) are being increasingly used as a method of altering economic incentives in a desirable way. IFQ systems, however, can also suffer severe shortcomings, unless substantial fees are extracted for the exclusive right to exploit a publicly owned resource. When combined with appropriate fees, or royalties, IFQs can indeed result in sustainable, profitable fisheries. There still remains the fundamental question of risk management, but this is also now beginning to be addressed. Thus there is now a strong hope for the future success of marine fisheries, at least within 200-mile coastal zones.     

The application of a market theory to the regulation of international fisheries

Abstract

This paper discusses the roles of ecological and economic information in the political and legal matrix of international fisheries. An argument is made for vesting exclusive management authority in a monopoly subject to a constraint that stocks not be depleted beyond the point of economic restitution. It is suggested that an appropriate authority be chosen by the criterion of the closest merging of ecological, economic, sociological, and political self‐interests. The reallocation of fishing effort by market dealings rather than by governmental negotiations is visualized as a means to reduce international conflicts over fishing rights. Precedents for the various elements of this model and the dangers inherent in it are discussed.     

Management histories of Sumilon and Apo Marine Reserves, Philippines, and their influence on national marine resource policy

 The histories of management of the Sumilon and Apo marine reserves in the Philippines provide a stark contrast. Both began with marine conservation and education programs at the community level, initiated by the Marine Laboratory of Silliman University in 1973 at Sumilon, and in 1976 at Apo. At both islands community support for the “no take” reserve concept evolved gradually, via perceived benefits of increased local fish yields and income from tourism. However, Sumilon reserve has been fished down twice (in 1984,1992), and was still being fished in December 1998. Apo reserve has been protected from fishing successfully for 16 y (1982–1998). The management histories of these two marine reserves are the longest and most detailed available for coral reefs. Scientific data spanning 1976–1993 for Sumilon and 1980–1993 for Apo have provided some of the best available evidence of the utility of such reserves as management tools in coral reef fisheries. At Sumilon, collapse of reserve protection in 1984, after 9.5 y of restrictions on fishing, led to significant declines in reef fisheries yields in areas adjacent to the reserve. At Apo, continuous protection from 1982 to 1993 has led to consistent build up of fish in the reserve and some evidence that local fish yields have increased. The unique time series of scientific data obtained from Sumilon and Apo islands are the result of their distinct management histories. The greater success of management at Apo was due to community support for the reserve concept being actively maintained for the past 16 y. Socio-political factors caused the level of community support for the Sumilon reserve to wax and wane over this period. Both case histories have had a profound effect on marine resource management in the Philippines. As marine reserve models they had substantial influence on the design of the National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS). Policy now encourages co-management between the National government and local communities, with a strong emphasis on decentralization of decision making and recognition of local territorial use rights in fisheries. Accepted: 14 May 1999     

Non-management of Natural Resources: The Case of Inland Fisheries in the Mayan Zone,Quintana Roo,México

This study explores the management of inland fisheries on common lands (ejidos) within the Mayan Zone of Quintana Roo, Mexico. Qualitative survey data are used to examine whether there are (a) ongoing fishery conservation activities; (b) local caretakers of fishing sites; (c) restrictions on where fishing can take place; and (d) particular groups of individuals who lack the right to fish within the ejidos. Results indicate that in contrast to other local resources, fisheries in the ejidos have less defined use rights, being viewed as largely “open access”. In particular, most feel that outsiders can fish in an ejido if they abide by local rules (notably not damaging the local water bodies, asking consent to fish, and having a friend or relative in the community). However, there are within-community differences in views concerning management and conservation, with those more dependent on fishing being more likely to support exclusion of outsiders.     

Community Based Fisheries Management and Fisher Livelihoods: Bangladesh Case Studies

Poor fishers in Bangladesh have been disadvantaged by policies that favored powerful people leasing fishing rights. Community-based management was expected to improve fisher access, livelihoods, and the sustainability of fisheries. The impacts of community management in three floodplain waterbodies differed according to the environment and property rights. Where a set of fishers jointly held exclusive rights to a small enclosed lake they increased production by stocking fish and shared the returns. This strategy is productive but attracts competition for profits and fish consumption was unchanged. Access to capture fisheries in floodplain waterbodies enables the poor to catch diverse small fish for their consumption. Yet sustainability requires limits on fishing. Fish sanctuaries were respected, yet catches per day fell when more people from several villages increased fishing effort in a large wetland, while a tightly knit community restored the fishery in a smaller floodplain. Community organizations will need recognition of their long-term use rights to overcome future threats.

Rights Based Fishing: Use Rights versus Property Rights to Fish

The basic economic problem of commercial fisheries can be seen as the absence of property rights to the fish stocks. There are, however, both practical and principal obstacles to applying that solution. Instead, the preferable arrangement appears to be stock control by public agencies, combined with exclusive use rights granted, leased or sold to the fishing industry in order to achieve economic efficiency. Incentives to establish such rights can be found both in government circles and in the industry. Both have a vital role to play; plans to establish use rights such as ITQs have run aground on more than one occasion because of opposition from the industry. Use rights can be seen as a tool for government agencies to achieve economic efficiency in the industry. If desired, these gains can be distributed over a wider public through user fees of some kind. There are few examples, however, of substantial user fees, and the industry has been successful in getting such schemes abolished when they have been put into effect. The experience of Russia and, in particular, Estonia is discussed. The absence of user fees can be explained by the need to obtain support for use right schemes from the industry, and the windfall gains from gratis use rights are vehicles for this. Norway and Iceland are two countries which have put in place use rights, but they have done so in different ways. Iceland has an ITQ system while Norway has fishing concessions combined with individual vessel quotas. Some success appears to have been achieved in both countries with these systems.     

Highly migratory species in the new law of the sea

Abstract

The 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea provides for coastal state sovereign rights over all living resources within the exclusive economic zone, but in a separate article makes special provision for so‐called highly migratory species (HMS) that are specifically identified in an Annex to the treaty. This paper examines the basic treaty provisions concerning all fisheries in the EEZ, highlighting the position of HMS, and then devotes detailed consideration to the regulation of fishing for HMS in light of Article 64 and other articles of the treaty. Discussion centers upon the requirements of Article 64, including the duty of cooperation and its subject matter, the meaning and consequence of failure to cooperate, the manner of cooperation under Article 64, and the application of the treaty to enclaves of high seas. Attention is given to the application to HMS of specific obligations under Articles 61 and 62, authority over HMS fishing within archipelagic waters, and the use of fish aggregation devices. There is also consideration of the relationship between the 1982 Convention and customary law regarding HMS, with particular attention to the position vis‐a‐vis the Convention of the United States as a nonsignatory who does not recognize coastal state jurisdiction over tuna but claims sovereign rights over all other highly migratory species within its recently proclaimed exclusive economic zone.     

Changes in the trophic interactions and the community structure of Lake Taihu (China) ecosystem from the 1960s to 1990s

As the third largest freshwater lake in China, Lake Taihu has suffered from overfishing, eutrophication, and physical disturbance over the last several decades. Evaluating and quantifying changes in the ecosystem can help us better understand and develop hypotheses to explain the dynamics of the ecosystem. In this study, trophic interactions and community structure of commercial fisheries species of Lake Taihu ecosystem were analyzed and compared for three time periods (1961–1965, 1981–1987, and 1991–1995) using the Ecopath with Ecosim model with the aim of evaluating the changes in the population dynamics and ecosystem development mechanism spanning the period from the 1960s to 1990s. The results show that the biomass of large predators decreased over the three decades, while the biomass of small species increased. Increases in the P/B ratios and fishing mortality levels observed for species groups reveal rapidly intensifying fishery stress over the three decades. The fisheries operated at the highest trophic level during the 1980s, and there are some indications of “fishing down the food web” in this ecosystem between the 1980s and the 1990s. Drawing upon Odum’s theory of ecosystem maturity, the structured, web-like ecosystem of the 1960s developed into a highly mature system during the 1980s; yet, in the 1990s, this structure became less complex and the system’s maturity fell to its lowest observed level. During this period, the successional development of the system occurred in reverse.     

Close the High Seas to Fishing?

The world''s oceans are governed as a system of over 150 sovereign exclusive economic zones (EEZs, ∼42% of the ocean) and one large high seas (HS) commons (∼58% of ocean) with essentially open access. Many high-valued fish species such as tuna, billfish, and shark migrate around these large oceanic regions, which as a consequence of competition across EEZs and a global race-to-fish on the HS, have been over-exploited and now return far less than their economic potential. We address this global challenge by analyzing with a spatial bioeconomic model the effects of completely closing the HS to fishing. This policy both induces cooperation among countries in the exploitation of migratory stocks and provides a refuge sufficiently large to recover and maintain these stocks at levels close to those that would maximize fisheries returns. We find that completely closing the HS to fishing would simultaneously give rise to large gains in fisheries profit (>100%), fisheries yields (>30%), and fish stock conservation (>150%). We also find that changing EEZ size may benefit some fisheries; nonetheless, a complete closure of the HS still returns larger fishery and conservation outcomes than does a HS open to fishing.     

Nutrient enrichment and fisheries exploitation: interactive effects on estuarine living resources and their management

Both fisheries exploitation and increased nutrient loadings strongly affect fish and shellfish abundance and production in estuaries. These stressors do not act independently; instead, they jointly influence food webs, and each affects the sensitivity of species and ecosystems to the other. Nutrient enrichment and the habitat degradation it sometimes causes can affect sustainable yields of fisheries, and fisheries exploitation can affect the ability of estuarine systems to process nutrients. The total biomass of fisheries landings in estuaries and semi-enclosed seas tends to increase with nitrogen loadings in spite of hypoxia, but hypoxia and other negative effects of nutrient over-enrichment cause declines in individual species and in parts of systems most severely affected. More thoroughly integrated management of nutrients and fisheries will permit more effective management responses to systems affected by both stressors, including the application of fisheries regulations to rebuild stocks negatively affected by eutrophication. Reducing fishing mortality may lead to the recovery of depressed populations even when eutrophication contributes to population declines if actions are taken while the population retains sufficient reproductive potential. New advances in modeling, statistics, and technology promise to provide the information needed to improve the understanding and management of systems subject to both nutrient enrichment and fisheries exploitation. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Guest editors: J. H. Andersen & D. J. Conley Eutrophication in Coastal Ecosystems: Selected papers from the Second International Symposium on Research and Management of Eutrophication in Coastal Ecosystems, 20–23 June 2006, Nyborg, Denmark     

The relevance of size parameters as indicators of fishery exploitation in two West African reservoirs

Fish communities living within the artificial reservoirs of Manantali and Selingue in Mali are compared after the monitoring of small-scale fishery landings over 13 months (May 2002–June 2003). The fishing pressure constitutes the main difference of these two similar reservoirs. The effects of fishing on the structure of the fish communities are analyzed by using fish size spectra and derived indicators. In Selingue Reservoir, the fishing gears mostly target smaller species (mean length of 165 mm) than in Manantali Reservoir (mean length of 210 mm). Unlike in Selingue, the size structure does not change between seasons in Manantali. In Selingue, fishing practices that target the fish recruitment of the year constitute a structuring factor of the fish sizes observed in the catches. In spite of similar values of the slopes of the global fish communities’ size spectra between the two reservoirs, they clearly display an intense exploitation at Selingue. Then, size-based spectra indicators represent a potential tool for assessing the impact of fishing on fish communities in small-scale fisheries.     

Fishing negotiations at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea

Abstract

One of the major consequences of the negotiations at the Third United Nations Law of the Sea Conferences (UNCLOS III) was a substantial reduction of the international commons in which the freedom to fish existed and the creation of what was supposed to be a sui generis zone, the 200‐mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ), but within which the coastal state would have a virtual monopoly on the right to allocate resources. How this was done at UNCLOS III is analyzed using a model that shows the progress over time on major issues of the parliamentary‐diplomatic‐style negotiation in which consensus was required for an acceptable outcome. The shifting positions of major states and bargaining groups as they maneuvered toward consensus is examined on the questions of the creation of the 200‐mile EEZ, the rights of foreign fishermen in the EEZ, the fishing rights of geographically disadvantaged states in the EEZ, and the management of highly migratory species. The analysis shows that the new ocean regime, created through complex tradeoffs and strenuous issue‐by‐issue bargaining, was critically influenced by fisheries issues.     

Progress and problems in U.S. marine fisheries rebuilding plans

The United States is somewhat unique among major fishing nations in mandating the rebuilding of overfished stocks within a specified period of time, a requirement first enacted in 1996. This study is based primarily on a review of trends in the 2000–2010 period in fishing mortality and biomass levels of stocks in rebuilding programs, supplemented by recent U.S. and international scientific literature. The major objectives of this study are, first, to assess progress achieved to date in these rebuilding plans, and, second, to identify the most significant obstacles to successful rebuilding. Sufficient data exists to monitor trends in fishing mortality and biomass levels number for just 35 stocks, out of a total 59 stocks that are currently rebuilding or have recently completed the rebuilding process. Most stocks in rebuilding plans are finfish, and the majority of are managed in relatively few fishery management plans governing fisheries in the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and northwest Pacific portions of the U.S. 200-mile exclusive economic zone. Therefore, the findings of this report are tentative and do not necessarily reflect broader trends in U.S. federally managed fisheries. This report shows substantial progress in about two-thirds of the 35 rebuilding stocks included in this report. Progress is defined in two ways: either the rebuilding plan has reduced fishing mortality to an acceptably low level, or it has brought about stock recovery to a mandated target. Most significantly, the assessment of rebuilding plan case studies indicates that reductions in fishing mortality, especially when implemented early in the programs and maintained as long as necessary, lead to significant increases in stock abundance in roughly four of five stocks. At the same time, the case studies also show that, in about one-third of the rebuilding plans, recovery measures have not yet produced the desired outcomes. The two most common problems are failure to adequately control fishing mortality and low resilience (high susceptibility to fishing pressure) of certain categories of overfished stocks.     

Ecological effects of longline fishing and climate change on the pelagic ecosystem off eastern Australia

Pelagic longline fisheries target (or catch incidently) large apex predators in the open ocean (e.g. tunas, billfish and sharks) and have the potential to disrupt the ecosystem functionality if these predators exert strong top–down control. In contrast, warming of oceans from climate change may increase bottom–up effects from increases in primary productivity. An ecosystem model of a large pelagic ecosystem off eastern Australia was constructed to explore the potential ecological effects of climate change and longlining by Australia’s Eastern Tuna and Billfish Fishery. The model reproduced historic biomass and fishery catch trends from 1952 to 2006 for seven functional groups. Simulated changes in fishing effort and fishing mortality rate on individual target species from 2008 to 2018 resulted in only modest (<20%) changes in the biomass of target species and their direct predators or competitors. A simulated increase in phytoplankton biomass due to climate change resulted in only small increases (<11%) in the biomass of all groups. However, climate-related changes to the biomass of micronekton fish (−20%) and cephalopods (+50%) resulted in trophic cascades. Our results suggest there may be ecological redundancy among high trophic level predators since they share a diverse suite of prey and collectively only represent <1% of the total system biomass. In contrast, micronekton fishes and cephalopods have high biomasses and high production and consumption rates and are important as both prey and predators. They appear to exert ‘wasp–waist’ control of the ecosystem rather than top–down or bottom–up processes reported to drive other pelagic systems.     

Historical and contemporary evidence of a mutton snapper (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lutjanus analis</Emphasis> Cuvier, 1828) spawning aggregation fishery in decline

Scientific information on reef fish spawning aggregation fisheries is sparse in light of numerous regional declines and extirpations from overexploitation. Fisher interviews of the small-scale commercial mutton snapper (Lutjanus analis) spawning aggregation fishery at Gladden Spit, Belize, suggests a historic decadal decline. The reported trend is supported by analysis of inter-seasonal catch and effort and yield (2000–2002) that reveals a 59% decline in catch per unit effort (CPUE) and a 22% decrease in mean landings per boat. Declining population-level trends are also supported by a significant decrease in inter-annual median lengths of mutton snappers (2000–2006). These findings demonstrate the need for additional life history information that includes length-associated age and details on growth to provide clearer support of the effects on, and responses by, populations following fishing. In view of the historical changes to mutton snapper CPUE and landings at Gladden Spit and the fishery-associated declines in fish spawning aggregations observed globally, a precautionary approach to spawning aggregation management is warranted that provides full protection from fishing to enhance population persistence. The findings also highlight the need for substantially greater enforcement and long-term fisheries monitoring under a comprehensive regional management strategy.     

More than One Bag for the World Fishery Crisis and Keys for Co-management Successes in Selected Artisanal Latin American Shellfisheries

Global concerns about the depletion of marine stocks have been widely documented in industrial fisheries. However, small-scale artisanal fisheries constitute a second component for the world fishery crisis, normally ignored or erroneously lumped into the industrial component. In this paper we first present a brief comparison between industrial and artisanal fisheries, highlighting the differences between them and the differential feasibility for implementing management options. We propose that industrial and artisanal fishery problems have to be treated separately and thus cannot be lumped into a single “fishing bag”. Among artisanal fisheries, we focus on coastal benthic shellfisheries, highlighting that their sedentary or sessile nature make them amenable to implement spatially-explicit management tools such as rotation of areas and territorial user rights (TURFs). Then, using long-term catch trends and selected examples, we demonstrate the power and validity of co-management for some Latin American shellfisheries, notably in Chile and Mexico, and stress the need to institutionalize the existent fishery knowledge. Several idiosyncratic properties of co-management in our Latin American examples have been useful to sustain the resources over time, including: (a) allocations of TURFs, (b) Community Fishery Quotas, which may be sub-allocated to families, (c) community-based and family-oriented sociological and organizational context of co-management, which may drive short and long-term market forces.     

Gear type,species composition and economic value of fisheries in the mangroves of Pak Phanang,Thailand

Fishing gear and methods, catch composition, annual catch numbers and the monetary value of fisheries based in the mangroves of Pak Phanang, Nakhon Si Thamarat province, Thailand, were studied from September 2004 to February 2005. The fishing gear and methods were surveyed by visual observation and interviews. Sample catches were taken for each type of fishing gear and method. Semi-closed questionnaire surveys were conducted among fishers, local traders, local administrative officers and related organizations to derive information on utilized species, gear and methods, fisher and fishery status, and trading and catch price. The Pak Phanang mangrove fishery has three types of multi-species capture gear: channel traps, gill nets and lift nets. It also has three kinds of single-species (group) gear/methods: crab traps, catfish hooks and hand capture using a long tail fishing boat. A total of 57 fish species in 27 families, and 23 shell fish species in 8 families were recorded from the catch samples. Penaeid shrimp (25%), and ambassid (31%) and mugilid (24%) fishes were the abundant groups in the channel traps, while ariid (36%) and mugilid (19%) fishes were abundant in the lift net catches. Ambassid (42%) fish dominated the gill net catches. Species richness (number of species) varied depending on sampling month and type of fishing gear. The total annual catch and its monetary value were estimated to be 442–551 tons and US $368,038–733,973, respectively. The estimated annual catch per unit area of mangrove was 63–79 kg ha⁻¹, which generated a market value of US $368,038–733,973, respectively. The estimated annual catch per unit area of mangrove was 63–79 kg ha⁻¹, which generated a market value of US 52–105.     

Reproductive styles and life history variables relative to exploitation and management ofSebastes stocks

Synopsis The characteristics of lightly and heavily exploited Pacific ocean perch,Sebastes alutus, stocks are evaluated relative to the predictions of life history theory. These long-lived species (50–100 year lifespan) show limited phenotypic plasticity and have little buffering against the effects of reduced lifespan. Reduced stock abundance has generated some compensatory increase in growth rate. Length at first maturity varies only slightly with increased growth rate, although age at maturity may decrease by 1–4 years. Grooth increases yield larger (15–20%) size at age and increased reproductive effort at younger ages, but lower size-specific fecundity for these faster-growing fish. This suggests an energy allocation protocol favouring growth over reproduction in these long-lived animals. Rockfishes have late recruitment to fisheries (ages 10–15), and the detection time for results of management actions is equally long. Their vulnerability to overfishing means that indices of population changes, more representative of fishing effects than the catch rate index presently used, are required. Reproductive value indices are shown to be extremely sensitive and continuous with population abundance changes. Their incorporation into monitoring programs would permit more timely evaluation of management actions. Management policies developed for shorter-lived species are shown to be inappropriate for rockfishes. The need for an improved match in the time frame of the species' life history, and that of management strategies, is stressed.