Serologic survey for selected viral pathogens in free-ranging endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola) and other mustelids from south-western France

To investigate the possible role of selected pathogens in the decline of endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola) populations and the potential for these pathogens to affect mink survival, a serologic survey was conducted using serum samples collected from March 1996 to March 2003 in eight departments of south-western France. In total, 481 free-ranging individuals of five mustelid species (including the European mink) were tested. Sympatric mustelids can serve as sentinels to determine the presence of antibodies to viruses in the study area that could potentially infect mink. Antibodies to Canine distemper virus (CDV) were detected in all species; 9% of 127 European mink, 20% of 210 polecats (Mustela putorius), 5% of 112 American mink (Mustela vison), 33% of 21 stone marten (Martes foina) and 5% of 20 pine marten (Martes martes). Antibody prevalence was significantly higher in stone marten and polecats, possibly because their ranges overlap more closely with that of domestic species than that of the other species tested. Antibodies to Canine adenovirus were detected in all species but the pine marten; antibody prevalence estimates ranging from 2% to 10%. Antibodies to canine parainfluenza virus were detected in 1% of European mink, 1% of American mink and 5% of tested polecats but were not detected in Martes species. Antibodies to Rabies virus (RV) were detected in three animals, possibly because of interspecies transmission of bat lyssaviruses as the sampling area is considered to be free of RV, or to a lack of test specificity, as antibody titers were low. The high antibody prevalence to potentially lethal CDV suggests that this pathogen could have significant effects on the free-ranging populations and has implications for the conservation efforts for the endangered European mink.     

Antibodies to Aleutian mink disease parvovirus in free-ranging European mink (Mustela lutreola) and other small carnivores from southwestern France

Owing to the rapid decline of the European mink (Mustela lutreola) in France, a national conservation action plan has been initiated, in which scientific research to improve understanding of the causes of the decline is one of the primary objectives. In order to investigate the possible role of Aleutian disease parvovirus (ADV) in decline of the species, a serologic survey was conducted from March 1996 to March 2002 in 420 free-ranging individuals of six species of small carnivores distributed in eight departments of southwestern France. Antibodies to ADV were detected in 17 of 75 American mink (Mustela vison), 12 of 99 European mink, 16 of 145 polecats (Mustela putorius), four of 17 stone martens (Martes foina), one of 16 pine martens (Martes martes), and three of 68 common genets (Genetta genetta). Seroprevalence was significantly higher in American mink than in other species. Seropositive individuals with gamma globulin levels >20% were observed in four European mink, four American mink, two stone martens, and one pine marten. Geographic distribution of positive animals indicates the virus has spread to all areas where European mink are found. Furthermore, a trend of increasing prevalence seems to appear in Mustela sp. sympatric with American mink. Although further investigations are necessary to evaluate the role of ADV in decline of European mink, evidence of the virus in the wild at the levels found in our study has implications for conservation of this species.     

Leptospirosis in free-ranging endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola) and other small carnivores (Mustelidae, Viverridae) from southwestern France

To study the possible role of disease in the decline of endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola), we conducted a survey of antibody prevalence and renal carriage of pathogenic leptospira (Leptospira interrogans sensu lato) using serum and kidney samples collected from 1990 to 2007 from several free-ranging small carnivores and farmed American mink (Mustela vison) in southwestern France. An indirect microscopic agglutination test using a panel of 16 serovars belonging to 6 serogroups (Australis, Autumnalis, Icteroh?morrhagi?, Grippotyphosa, Panama, Sejroe) revealed antibodies in all species, with significant differences in antibody prevalences: 74% in European mink (n=99), 65.4% in European polecats (Mustela putorius, n=133), 86% in American mink (n=74), 89% in stone martens (Martes foina, n=19), 74% in pine martens (Martes martes, n=19), 35% in common genets (Genetta genetta, n=79), and 31% in farmed American mink (n=51). Serogroups Australis and Icteroh?morragi? were dominant in most free-ranging species; serogroup Grippotyphosa had high prevalences in European mink. Such high antibody prevalences have never been reported. They are probably related to the large number of known reservoirs, rats (Rattus spp.), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), and coypu (Myocastor coypu), in the study area. The polymerase chain reaction test specific for pathogenic leptospiral DNA detected renal carriage in 23% of 34 European mink, 22% of 18 polecats, and 15% of 33 free-ranging American mink, with no significant differences. Renal carriage shows that mustelids may shed leptospira for short periods, but their epidemiologic role is probably limited. High antibody prevalences suggest that the disease is unlikely to be highly pathogenic for these species; however, chronic forms of the disease (abortions, renal lesions) could reduce the reproductive success or life span of infected animals. Further studies on the pathogenicity of leptospirosis in these populations are needed to measure its impact on the population dynamics of these rodent predators.     

Evidence of secondary poisoning of free-ranging riparian mustelids by anticoagulant rodenticides in France: implications for conservation of European mink (Mustela lutreola)

Because of the rapid decline of the endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola) populations in France, a national conservation program has been put into action, including research to understand the causes of decline. As part of this research, concentrations of eight anticoagulant rodenticides were examined in livers from 122 carcasses of four species of free-ranging mustelids collected between 1990 and 2002 in southwestern France. Bromadiolone residue was found in all species and 9% of the sample (one of 31 European mink, three of 47 American mink [Mustela vison], five of 33 polecats [Mustela putorius], and two of 11 European otters [Lutra lutra]). Liver concentrations ranged from 0.6 mug/g to 9.0 mug/g. Chlorophacinone residue was found in two species and 4% of the sample (in four of the American mink and in one of the otters), with liver concentrations ranging from 3.4 mug/g to 8.5 mug/g. Two polecats and one American mink had lesions and liver residues indicating bromadiolone was directly responsible for their death. However, most of our study animals survived secondary poisoning until they were caught; this study certainly underestimates the extent of fatal exposure of mustelids to rodenticides. Moreover, anticoagulant poisoning could increase their vulnerability to other causes of death. The current status of the endangered European mink population is such that any additional risk factor for mortality is important, and it is thus urgent to monitor and reduce the extensive use of bromadiolone and chlorophacinone against field rodents in France.     

Bayesian analysis of hybridization and introgression between the endangered european mink (Mustela lutreola) and the polecat (Mustela putorius)

Human-mediated global change will probably increase the rates of natural hybridization and genetic introgression between closely related species, and this will have major implications for conservation of the taxa involved. In this study, we analyse both mitochondrial and nuclear data to characterize ongoing hybridization and genetic introgression between two sympatric sister species of mustelids, the endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola) and the more abundant polecat (M. putorius). A total of 317 European mink, 114 polecats and 15 putative hybrid individuals were collected from different localities in Europe and genotyped with 13 microsatellite nuclear markers. Recently developed Bayesian methods for assigning individuals to populations and identifying admixture proportions were applied to the genetic data. To identify the direction of hybridization, we additionally sequenced mtDNA and Y chromosomes from 78 individuals and 29 males respectively. We found that both hybridization and genetic introgression occurred at low levels (3% and 0.9% respectively) and indicated that hybridization is asymmetric, as only pure polecat males mate with pure European mink females. Furthermore, backcrossing and genetic introgression was detected only from female first-generation (F1) hybrids of European mink to polecats. This latter result implies that Haldane's rule may apply. Our results suggest that hybridization and genetic introgression between the two species should be considered a rather uncommon event. However, the current low densities of European mink might be changing this trend.     

Habitat utilization by sympatric European mink<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mustela lutreola</Emphasis> and polecats<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mustela putorius</Emphasis> in south-western France

The European minkMustela lutreola Linnaeus, 1761 and the European polecatMustela putorius Linnaeus, 1758 are related species sympatric in southwestern France. The European mink is rapidly disappearing whereas the polecat maintains good populations. Seasonal habitat use of both species was compared in the Landes de Gascogne region to identify if some vulnerability factors of the European mink were associated with habitats occupied by this mustelid. Potential habitats were mapped using a satellite picture and 12 main types of habitats were defined. Animal locations were recorded by radiotracking 9 European mink and 14 polecats from March 1996 to August 1999. Resting animals were located by triangulation, and, when possible, resting places were described. Animals in activity were tracked by continuous monitoring. Data collected revealed a strong preference of European mink for flooded habitats, particularly open marshes, flooded woodlands and moorlands. They seldom left the corridor of the riparian forest and their resting places were mainly in flooded environments, above ground (under herbs or bushes) or in cavities between tree roots. European polecats were less tightly linked to wetlands. Most of their locations were in the pine forests outside the valleys and their resting places were mainly in burrows. The strong specialisation of European mink in aquatic habitats is probably one of the main reasons for its decline because wetlands suffer drastic damages throughout all of its range. Maintaining adequate water levels is crucial for satisfying habitat requirements of mink.     

Effects of an anesthetic mixture of medetomidine,midazolam, and butorphanol in rats—strain difference and antagonism by atipamezole

An anesthetic mixture of medetomidine (MED), midazolam (MID), and butorphanol (BUT) has been used in laboratory animals. We previously reported that this anesthetic mixture produced closely similar anesthetic effects in BALB/c and C57BL/6J strains. We also demonstrated the efficacy of atipamezole (ATI), an antagonist of MED that produced quick recovery from anesthesia in mice. Anesthetics have various anesthetic effects among animal strains. However, the differences in the effects of anesthetic mixtures in rats are unclear. In the present study, we first examined effects of the abovementioned anesthetic mixture using three different rat strains: Wistar (WST), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344). Second, we examined how different dosages and optimum injection timing of ATI affected recovery from anesthesia in rats. We used the anesthetic score to measure anesthetic duration and a pulse oximeter to monitor vital signs. We found no significant differences in anesthetic duration among the three different strains. However, recovery from anesthesia in the SD strain took significantly longer than in the other strains. The antagonistic effects of ATI (0.15 mg/kg and 0.75 mg/kg) were equivalent when administered at 30 min after anesthetic mixture administration. The antagonistic effects of ATI 0.75 mg/kg were stronger than those of ATI 0.15 mg/kg at 10 min after anesthetic mixture administration. This anesthetic mixture is a useful drug that can induce similar anesthetic effects in three different strains and has an antagonist, ATI, that makes rats quickly recover from anesthesia. These results may contribute to the welfare of laboratory animals.     

Anesthetic effects of a three-drugs mixture —comparison of administrative routes and antagonistic effects of atipamezole in mice—

The anesthetic mixture of medetomidine (MED), midazolam (MID) and butorphanol (BUT) produced anesthetic duration of around 40 minutes (min) in ICR mice. We reported that this anesthetic mixture produced almost the same anesthetic effects in both male and female BALB/c and C57BL/6J strains. Intraperitoneal (IP) administration of drugs has been widely used in mice. However, various injectable routes of the anesthetic mixture may cause different anesthetic effects. First, we examined effects of the anesthetic mixture by subcutaneous (SC) and intravenous (IV) injection compared to IP injection. After injection of the anesthetic mixture, administration of atipamezole (ATI) induced mice recovery from anesthesia. Secondly, we examined how different dosage and optimum injection timing of ATI affected mice recovery from anesthesia. We used an anesthetic score to measure anesthetic duration and a pulse oximeter to monitor vital signs under anesthesia. Usually, drugs from SC injection work more weakly than IP or IV injection. However, we found no significant differences of anesthetic duration among the three different injection routes. Antagonistic effects of ATI (0.3 mg/kg and 1.5 mg/kg) worked equally when administered at 30 min after injection of the anesthetic mixture. Antagonistic effects of ATI (1.5 mg/kg) were stronger than ATI (0.3 mg/kg) at 10 min after injection of the anesthetic mixture. The anesthetic mixture is a useful drug to induce nearly the same anesthetic effects by different injection routes and has an antagonist of ATI which helps mice quickly recover from anesthesia. These results may contribute to the welfare of laboratory animals.     

Experimental infection of domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) and Siberian polecats (Mustela eversmanni) with Yersinia pestis

Eight domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) and two Siberian polecats (M. eversmanni) were inoculated subcutaneously with 12 to 1.2 x 10(7) Yersinia pestis originally isolated during an epizootic of plague in white-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys leucurus) near Meeteetse, Park County, Wyoming (USA) in 1985. None of the ferrets or polecats developed clinical signs of disease which suggested that black-footed ferrets (M. nigripes), a congener, also would be resistant to plague. All animals receiving greater than or equal to 1.2 X 10(3) organisms produced serum antibodies detected by the passive hemagglutination test with titers peaking at 1:1,024 and remaining positive until at least 219 days postinoculation. Sera collected from 12 free-ranging black-footed ferrets near Meeteetse in 1984 and 1985 were negative for antibodies against Y. pestis. Prevalence of antibodies against Y. pestis was high in other carnivores collected from the same area in 1986.     

Reversible immobilization of free-ranging African lions (Panthera leo) with medetomidine-tiletamine-zolazepam and atipamezole

A combination of medetomidine-tiletamine-zolazepam was used to conduct six immobilizations of free-ranging lions (Panthera leo) in Waza National Park, Cameroon, during 1999 and 2000. Drugs were administered by dart injection at 0.07+/-0.01 (mean+/-SD) mg/kg of medetomidine and 1.8+/-0.5 mg/kg of tiletamine-zolazepam. Chemical immobilization was characterized by smooth inductions (14.1+/-6 min), satisfactory analgesia, and muscle relaxation. One animal was treated for bradypnea. No major alterations of physiologic parameters (heart and respiratory rates, rectal temperature) were seen during immobilization in the other lions. Relative arterial oxygen saturation was measured in two animals and revealed mild hypoxemia. The animals received atipamezole at 0.3+/-0.1 mg/kg intramuscularly for reversal of anesthesia. Recoveries were uneventful. All animals were radiocollared, and no mortalities occurred during an 18-mo follow-up period. Use of medetomidine-tiletamine-zolazepam for anesthesia and reversal of anesthesia with atipamezole appear to be useful for reversible immobilization of free-ranging lions.     

Spatial behaviour of European minkMustela lutreola and polecatMustela putorius in southwestern France

The European minkMustela lutreola Linnaeus, 1761 and the European polecatMustela putorius Linnaeus, 1758 are sympatric in southwestern France. They are related species but the former is highly threatened whereas the latter maintains good populations. Nine European mink and 14 polecats were radiotracked in the Landes de Gascogne region to compare their space use and to identify appropriate conservation measures for the European mink. Resting animals were located once a day and active animals were tracked by continuous monitoring. European mink had linear home ranges whose sizes were larger than predicted by Johnson’s model (mean±SD=2971±1888 ha in males and 257±113 ha in females). They travelled long inter-day distances (1.4±1.9 km in males and 0.4±0.6 km in females). Polecats had home ranges of various shapes (linear, circular or combined) and their sizes were consistent with Johnson’s model (707±779 ha in males and 51±58 ha in females). They also had shorter inter-day distances than mink (0.7±0.9 km in males and 0.2±0.4 km in females). However male polecats had longer activity bouts than male mink. Thus European mink exhibit large movements between small and distant activity areas while polecats compensate for their smaller range by a higher activity in restricted areas. The behaviour of the European mink appears to be an adaptation to habitats scattered over linear ranges. This extensive use of space suggests that conservation of this endangered species cannot be achieved in the confinement of Europe’s natural reserves. Conservation plans should aim at maintaining high quality habitats along entire river networks and ensuring safe movements for the animals, preventing particularly the risk of collisions with vehicles.     

Transfer of European mink (Mustela lutreola) embryos into hybrid recipients

The European mink is considered as a highly endangered Mustelidae species. The objective of this study was to explore the intriguing possibility of embryo transfer from European mink to closely related Mustelidae recipient females. To overcome interspecies pregnancy failure, embryos of European mink (Mustela lutreola) were transferred into hybrid females obtained after mating of European polecat (Mustela putorius) males and European mink (M. lutreola) females and vice versa. A total of 32 blastocysts were surgically flushed from the uteri of nine European mink donors and surgically transferred into six pseudopregnant hybrid recipients. One of the recipients received a single embryo and did not whelp. The remaining five recipients each received five to eight embryos and delivered kits. The overall success rate was 50% (16 kits/32 transferred embryos). For both male and female offspring, the average birth weight was lower in ET group when compared with naturally bred control population of European mink. The postnatal mortality rate was significantly higher in ET group as compared to controls: only 9 of 16 kits survived past the first week. At 10 days of age, the average weight for male offspring from the ET and control groups did not differ, although differences still persisted at this age for female offspring. At 3 months of age, the weight of male and female offspring in the ET group did not differ from European minks born after natural mating. We propose that transfer of European mink embryos to hybrid recipients be considered as a new experimental tool within the framework of ex situ approach conservation of this aboriginal European mustelid.     

Capture and medetomidine-ketamine anesthesia of free-ranging wolverines (Gulo gulo)

Capture and anesthesia with medetomidine-ketamine were evaluated in free-ranging wolverines (Gulo gulo) immobilized for marking with radiocollars or intraperitoneal radiotransmitters in Norrbotten, Sweden, during early June 2004 and 2005. Twelve juvenile wolverines were captured by hand and injected with 0.14 +/- 0.03 mg/kg (mean +/- SD) medetomidine and 7.5 +/- 2.0 mg/kg ketamine. Twelve adult wolverines were darted from a helicopter or the ground, or captured by hand. Adults received 0.37 +/- 0.06 mg/kg medetomidine and 9.4 +/- 1.4 mg/kg ketamine. Arterial blood samples were collected between 15 min and 30 min and between 45 min and 60 min after drug administration and immediately analyzed for selected hematologic and plasma variables. Hyperthermia was recorded initially in one juvenile wolverine and 11 adults. Rectal temperature, heart rate, and lactate decreased significantly during anesthesia, whereas hemoglobin oxygen saturation, pH, partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide, and base excess increased. Adult wolverines darted from a helicopter had a significantly higher rectal temperature, higher glucose and hematocrit values, and a lower heart rate than juveniles captured by hand. Impaired arterial oxygenation was evident in all wolverines. This study provides baseline data on physiologic variables in adult and juvenile wolverines captured with different methods and anesthetized with medetomidine-ketamine.     

The development of homeothermy in mink (Mustela vison)

In mink (Mustela vison) kits newborn mortality is very high. One of the major causes of death is hypothermia. The objectives of this study were to observe the development of thermoregulation in mink kits, and their ability to maintain their body temperature during the postnatal period (1-50 days of age). Based on the kit's body weight (BW), and rectal and ambient temperature measurements during cold (+4 degrees C) and warm (+40 degrees C) exposures, a homeothermy index (HI) and cooling and warming rates were calculated. No significant differences in the body temperatures were found between the kits and the dam after 36 days of age. The kits were able to maintain homeothermy by 22 days of age (HI 90%). The body cooling rate was 0.88+/-0.04 degrees C min(-1) on day 1 but only 0.35+/-0.03 degrees C min(-1) at 22 days of age. The body WR was lower: day 1, 0.85+/-0.04 degrees C min(-1) and 0.22+/-0.03 degrees C min(-1) at 22 days of age. All measured and calculated thermophysiological variables were significantly influenced by BW and age of the kit.     

Immobilization of mule deer with thiafentanil (A-3080) or thiafentanil plus xylazine

We evaluated thiafentanil oxalate (A-3080) for the immobilization of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) under laboratory and field conditions. In a crossover experiment comparing recommended (0.1 mg/kg) and 2x recommended thiafentanil doses in captive deer, both produced rapid induction and immobilization. Mean induction was shorter (P = 0.013) for the 2x group (1.9 vs. 3 min); mean reversals for both groups were rapid (recommended = 0.9 min after naltrexone injection; 2x = 1 min) and did not differ (P = 0.29). Six free-ranging mule deer were immobilized with 7 mg thiafentanil and four with 10 mg; mean induction was 2.3 min for both groups (95% confidence interval [CI]: 7 mg, 1.2-3.4; 10 mg, 1.9-2.8), and mean reversal was <1 min for both groups. Of 165 free-ranging deer darted with various combinations of thiafentanil and xylazine, we successfully immobilized 148 (90%). Mean induction ranged from 2.1 to 4.9 min for different drug combinations. Reversals were not compared because naltrexone and yohimbine doses varied, but overall mean reversal was 1.9 min (95% CI, 1.7-2.1 min) after injection of naltrexone and yohimbine intravenously (i.v.); naltrexone:thiafentanil ratios ranging from 10:1 to 43:1 provided mean recoveries ranging from 1.5 to 2.3 min. All 25 deer fitted with radio collars were alive at 30 days postcapture. On the basis of overall reliability and effectiveness, drug volumes, and ease of handling drugged animals, we recommend using a combination of 10-12 mg thiafentanil (0.15-0.2 mg/kg) and 100 mg xylazine to immobilize mule deer; immobilization can be effectively reversed with 100 mg naltrexone or more and 15 mg yohimbine or more i.v. Where feasible, we also recommend the use of transmitter darts when immobilizing mule deer with opioids in order to maximize recovery of darted deer and to ensure that missed darts are found.     

Surgical transfer of in vivo produced farmed European polecat (Mustela putorius) embryos

Surgical embryo transfer of farmed European polecat (Mustela putorius) was investigated as part of an ex situ preservation project. The long-term objective of the project is to develop effective technology for ex situ conservation of the European mink (Mustela lutreola), which is a highly endangered aboriginal European species. Twenty European polecat females, which served as a model species for the European mink, were humanely killed 4-9 days after first mating and embryos were recovered from oviducts and uteri. Donor-recipient pairs (n = 16) were generated by mating the donors (n = 20) once a day for 2 consecutive days with fertile males and by mating the corresponding recipients (n = 16) on the same days with vasectomized males. An embryo recovery rate of 70% (200 recovered embryos/284 corpora lutea) was achieved from 20 donors. Morulae and blastocysts were recovered between Days 5 and 9 after first mating and were regarded as the best developmental stages for uterine embryo transfer. A total of 172 embryos were transferred surgically under general anaesthesia into the ovarian third of the left uterine horn of 16 recipients with a thin glass capillary. Eleven recipients (69%) produced 72 pups equivalent to an average success rate of 42% (72 pups/172 transferred embryos). The average litter size was 4.5 (range 0-9). These results with this model species, farmed European polecat, demonstrate the potential of embryo transfer as an effective method for the preservation of the endangered European mink (M. lutreola). These species are closely related and have a similar reproductive physiology. However, success of applying embryo transfer in conserving European mink is still dependent on further studies both into its reproductive physiology and developing of improved flushing techniques for anaesthetized donors and the successful transfer of frozen-thawed embryos.     

Anesthesia of wild red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) with medetomidine/ketamine and reversal by atipamezole

Wild red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) were translocated during the flooding of the forest at a hydroelectric dam site in French Guiana. For a variety of minor clinical procedures, 96 monkeys were anesthetized with various intramuscular injections of combinations of medetomidine and ketamine. The howler population was composed of healthy animals (42 males and 54 females) of various ages. Medetomidine (150 μg/kg) associated with ketamine (4 mg/kg) gave the best results and was used on 63 animals. The injection rapidly resulted in complete immobilization with good to excellent myorelaxation. The induction stage was quiet, with absence of both corneal and pedal withdrawal reflexes in 57 animals after 2.9 ± 1.4 min. Six animals required an additional injection. Rectal temperature and respiratory and heart rates decreased during anesthesia, whereas relative oxyhemoglobin saturation increased. One death occurred during anesthesia. One abortion and one death also occurred the day following anesthesia but were more probably a result of capture stress. Atipamezole given i.m. at a dose of five times the medetomidine dose 38.4 ± 8.0 min after the anesthetic injection led to standing recovery in 7.1 ± 4.5 min. Spontaneous recovery occurred in 17 animals before the atipamezole injection after an average of 30.6 ± 9.6 min. Total recovery time was shorter in young animals. Medetomidine/ketamine induced good myorelaxation and provided considerably shortened immobilization duration, which are two notable advantages for field studies. We recommend this association for short procedures including minor surgery in red howler monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 45:399–410, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Propofol anesthesia in loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles

Rapid, safe, and effective methods of anesthetic induction and recovery are needed for sea turtles, especially in cases eligible for immediate release. This study demonstrates that intravenous propofol provides a rapid induction of anesthesia in loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles and results in rapid recovery, allowing safe return to water shortly after the procedure. Forty-nine loggerhead sea turtles were recovered as local fishery by-catch in pound nets and transported to a surgical suite for laparoscopic sex determination. Treatment animals (n = 32) received 5 mg/kg propofol intravenously (i.v.) as a rapid bolus, whereas control animals (n = 17) received no propofol. For analgesia, all animals received a 4 ml infusion of 1% lidocaine, locally, as well as 2 mg/kg ketoprofen intramuscularly (i.m.). Physiologic data included heart and respiratory rate, temperature, and a single blood gas sample collected upon termination of the laparoscopy. Subjective data included jaw tone and ocular reflex: 3 (vigorous) to 0 (none detected). Anesthetic depth was scored from 1, no anesthesia, to 3, surgical anesthesia. Turtles receiving propofol became apneic for a minimum of 5 min with a mean time of 13.7 +/- 8.3 min to the first respiration. Limb movement returned at a mean time of 21.1 +/- 16.8 min. The treatment animals were judged to be sedated for approximately 30 min (mean anesthetic depth score > or = 1.5) when compared to controls. Median respiratory rates for treatment animals were slower compared to controls for the first 15 min, then after 35 min, they became significantly faster than the controls. Median heart rates of control animals became significantly slower than treatment animals between 40 and 45 min. Physiologic differences between groups persisted a minimum of 55 min. Possible explanations for heart rate and respiratory rate differences later in the monitoring period include a compensatory recovery of treatment animals from anesthesia-induced hypoxia and hypercapnia or, alternatively, an induced response of the nonsedated control animals. The animals induced with propofol were easier to secure to the restraint device and moved less during laparoscopy. In conclusion, propofol is a safe and effective injectable anesthetic for use in free-ranging loggerhead sea turtles that provides rapid induction and recovery.     

Anesthesia in female white-tailed deer using Telazol and xylazine

Thirty two free-ranging female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were anesthesized with varying Telazol and xylazine HCl combinations in Front Royal (Virginia, USA) between August 1992 and September 1992. All animals were caught in baited box traps, manually restrained, and hand injected with a combination of Telazol and xylazine administered intramuscularly. Deer received mean +/- SE dosages of 2.53+/-0.16 mg/kg Telazol and 0.69+/-0.05 mg/kg of xylazine. These dosages achieved a rapid and effective anesthetic plane for short-term procedures such as weighing, blood collection, and translocation. Eight of 32 deer (25%) required an intravenous (i.v.) supplement of ketamine HCl (100 mg) to maintain a safe plane of anesthesia. Ketamine supplementation provided an average of 11.8+/-2.0 min additional safe handling. Satisfactory reversals were achieved in all deer by administering yohimbine HCl 16 mg i.v. (dose range, 0.22 to 0.48 mg/kg) to all animals.     

Field immobilization of American martens (Martes americana) and short-tailed weasels (Mustela erminea).

Ketamine hydrochloride (KH) and a 5:1 combination of KH and xylazine hydrochloride (XH) were used successfully to immobilize short-tailed weasels (Mustela erminea) and American martens (Martes americana), respectively. Four adult male martens were intramuscularly injected with 30 to 82 mg/kg KH and 8.0 to 16.4 mg/kg XH. Three adult male short-tailed weasels were intramuscularly injected with 20.8 to 42.1 mg/kg KH. Mean (+/- SE) induction times for martens and short-tailed weasels were 1.8 +/- 0.2 min and 46 +/- 4.1 sec, respectively; recovery times were 100.4 +/- 19.3 min and 97.9 +/- 6.3 min, respectively. Heart rate was relatively constant among martens; however, respiration varied widely (21 to 122 breaths per minute). Marten body temperature decreased between 0 and 20 min post-recumbency. Short-tailed weasel heart rate and respiration decreased in response to sedation until slightly before arousal. Body temperature stabilized by 20 min post-recumbency. Two short-tailed weasels tremored slightly within 10 min of arousal. I conclude that KH and KH/XH are safe immobilizing agents for martens and short-tailed weasels, respectively.