Focusing Conservation Efforts for the Critically Endangered Brown-headed Spider Monkey (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ateles fusciceps</Emphasis>) Using Remote Sensing,Modeling, and Playback Survey Methods

Brown-headed spider monkeys (Ateles fusciceps), endemic to the Choco-Darien forests and lower Andean forests of NW Ecuador, are considered critically endangered. Unfortunately, scientific data regarding the actual status of populations is lacking. We combined satellite image analysis, species-specific habitat assessment, and a field survey technique using playback to focus conservation efforts for this species. First, we identified remaining forest via a LANDSAT mosaic and then applied species-specific criteria to delineate remaining forest with potential to hold populations. By combining this with the historical distribution from ecological niche modeling and predicted hunting intensity we generated a species-specific landscape map. Within our study area, forest capable of sustaining Ateles fusciceps covers 5872 km², of which 2172 km² (40%) is protected. Unprotected forest considered suitable for Ateles fusciceps extends to 3700 km² but within this only 989 km² (23%) is under low hunting pressure and likely to maintain healthy populations of Ateles fusciceps. To overcome problems of sampling at low primate density and in difficult mountain terrain we developed a field survey technique to determine presence and estimate abundance using acoustic sampling. For sites under low hunting pressure density of primates varied with altitude. Densities decreased from 7.49 individuals/km² at 332 masl to 0.9 individuals/km² at 1570 masl. Based on combining data sets in a gap analysis, we recommend conservation action focus on unprotected lowland forest to the south and west of the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve where hunting pressure is low and population densities of Ateles fusciceps are greatest.     

Radiation and speciation of spider monkeys,genus Ateles,from the cytogenetic viewpoint

The chromosomes of 22 animals of four subspecies of the genus Ateles (A. paniscus paniscus, A. p. chamek, A. belzebuth hybridus, and A. b. marginatus) were compared using G/C banding and NOR (nucleolar organizer region) staining methods. The cytogenetic data of Ateles in the literature were also used to clarify the phylogenetic relationships of the species and subspecies and to infer the routes of radiation and speciation of these taxa. Chromosomes 6 and 7 that showed more informative geographic variation and the apomorphic form 4/12, exclusively in A. p. paniscus, are the keys for understanding the evolution, radiation, and specification of the Ateles taxa. The ancestral populations of the genus originated in the southwestern Amazon Basin (the occurrence area of A. paniscus chamek) and spread in the Amazon Basin and westward, crossing the Andes and colonizing Central America and northwesternmost regions of South America. The evolutionary history of the northern South American taxa is interpreted using the model of biogeographical evolution postulated by Haffer [Science 185:131–137, 1969]. Ateles paniscus paniscus is the genetically most differentiated form and probably derives from A. belzebuth hybridus. Based on the karyotype differences, the populations of Ateles can be divided into four different group. These findings indicate the necessity of a more coherent taxonomic arrangement for the taxa of Ateles. Am. J. Primatol. 42:167–178, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Chromosomal distinction between the red-faced and black-faced black spider monkeys (Ateles paniscus paniscus and A. p. chamek)

The two subspecies of the black spider monkey, Ateles paniscus paniscus and A. p. chamek, can be distinguished by their chromosome number, 2n = 32 in the former and 2n = 34 in the latter. This difference most probably is the result of a tandem fusion between chromosomes 4 and 13 of the original Ateles karyotype (2n = 34) to form a unique metacentric chromosome in A. p. paniscus. Further differences between the subspecies concern the presence of additional interstial or terminal C-bands in chromosomes 3, 5, and 12 of A. p. paniscus. A third difference is that chromosome 12 is metacentric in A. p. paniscus but is submetacentric in A. p. chamek. A. p. chamek shows dimorphisms caused by pericentric inversions in pairs 1, 5, 6, and 7 as well as in the Y chromosome. Since the dimorphisms in pairs 5 and 7 are only found in homozygous condition, they may indicate the existence of geographic variation within this subspecies. Differences in external characteristics possibly reflect these chromosomal difference. The necessity to lend A. p. paniscus full specific status should be considered, since karyologically this is the most distinct one of all forms of Ateles. In captive breeding A. p. paniscus should evidently be treated as a separate population, as hybridization with A. p. chamek may result in offspring with reduced fertility. The intra-subspecific karyological variation in A. p. chamek and its possible consequences for taxonomy and captive breeding require further investigation.     

Contribution of genetic distances studies to the taxonomy ofAteles,particularlyAteles paniscus paniscus andAteles paniscus chamek

We studied 20 electrophoretic loci in two populations ofAteles (Ateles paniscus paniscus andAteles paniscus chamek). We observed intrapopulational variation at the following loci: esterase D, glyoxalase 1, adenosine deaminase (A. p. chamek) and carbonic anhydrase 2 (A. p. paniscus). The two populations share the most frequent alleles at 17 loci, but we noted great differences in glyoxalase 1, adenosine deaminase and phosphoglucomutase 1.A. p. paniscus is monomorphic for theGLO1 ^*1 allele, which has a frequency of 6% inA. p.chamek. They did not share alleles in relation to the ADA and PGM1 loci. We found a CA2 allele, named hereCA2 ^*1, which has not been described previously in other neotropical primates (Sampaio et al., 1991a), inA. p. paniscus. The present results suggest that the geographical isolation represented by the Rio Amazonas has lasted long enough to support this level of divergence. These observations taken together with chromosomal findings, led us to endorse the proposal of two distinct species:Ateles paniscus andAteles chamek.     

Evaluation of DNA extraction methods for Bacillus anthracis spores isolated from spiked food samples

Aims

Nine commercial DNA extraction kits were evaluated for the isolation of DNA from 10‐fold serial dilutions of Bacillus anthracis spores using quantitative real‐time PCR (qPCR). The three kits determined by qPCR to yield the most sensitive and consistent detection (Epicenter MasterPure Gram Positive; MoBio PowerFood; ABI PrepSeq) were subsequently tested for their ability to isolate DNA from trace amounts of B. anthracis spores (approx. 6·5 × 10¹ and 1·3 × 10² CFU in 25 ml or 50 g of food sample) spiked into complex food samples including apple juice, ham, whole milk and bagged salad and recovered with immunomagnetic separation (IMS).

Methods and Results

The MasterPure kit effectively and consistently isolated DNA from low amounts of B. anthracis spores captured from food samples. Detection was achieved from apple juice, ham, whole milk and bagged salad from as few as 65 ± 14, 68 ± 8, 66 ± 4 and 52 ± 16 CFU, respectively, and IMS samples were demonstrated to be free of PCR inhibitors.

Conclusions

Detection of B. anthracis spores isolated from food by IMS differs substantially between commercial DNA extraction kits; however, sensitive results can be obtained with the MasterPure Gram Positive kit.

Significance and Impact of the Study

The extraction protocol identified herein combined with IMS is novel for B. anthracis and allows detection of low levels of B. anthracis spores from contaminated food samples.     

Environmental determinants and use of space by six Neotropical primates in the northern Brazilian Amazon

The Guiana Shield has large pristine tracts of tropical forest with high biological diversity and is an area of endemism within the Amazon Basin. However, the conservation status of primates in eastern Amazonian Brazil is still poorly known. Here, we report information on relative abundance, group size, density estimates, plus the effects of environmental variables and seasonality of primates in a sustainable-use reserve in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. From a 603 km transect-based census conducted in October–December 2013 and March–June 2014 we obtained 122 sighting records of six primate species. The most common were Ateles paniscus (45 detections) and Saguinus midas (40 detections). The high calculated density estimates for Sg. midas (2.01 groups/km² or 12.05 individuals/km²) and for At. paniscus (3.44 groups/km² or 10.31 individuals/km²) underscore the conservation importance of the study area for the vulnerable At. paniscus. We found no effect of environmental variables on the number of detections of primates, except for At. paniscus and Cebus olivaceus, with the former showing a higher number of detections in more open canopy forest during the rainy season, and the later having a higher number of detections in areas with higher density of palms in the dry season.     

Estimating seed dispersal distance: A comparison of methods using animal movement and plant genetic data on two primate‐dispersed Neotropical plant species

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Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the genomes and chromosomes of spider monkeys (Primates: Atelidae)

Heterochromatin distribution and chromosomal rearrangements have been proposed as the main sources of karyotype differences among species of Neotropical primates. This variability suggests that there could be differences at other smaller‐scale levels of DNA organization as well. In particular, quantitative differences between genomes result from gains and losses of individual DNA segments, and may result in varying genome sizes (C‐values) among species. In this work, we studied the genomes of 23 individuals from four species in the genus Ateles (Primates: Platyrrhini): A. chamek, A. paniscus, A. belzebuth, and A. geoffroyi. We analyzed genome size and its relationship with the presence of chromosomal rearrangements and patterns of heterochromatin distribution. The C‐value presented in this work for Ateles chamek is the first estimate for this species (3.09 ± 0.23 pg), whereas our estimates for A. belzebuth (2.88 ± 0.06 pg) and A. geoffroyi (3.19 ± 0.24 pg) differed from those previously published. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and interspecies comparativegenomic hybridization (iCGH) analyses revealed that differences in genome size among species relate to localized blocks in both heterochromatic and euchromatic regions, the latter of which appear to be genetically unstable. There were also quantitative differences in Y chromosome content. It remains to be seen whether the chromosomal characteristics of Ateles here discussed are common to platyrrhine monkeys, but it is clear that these monkeys exhibit some intriguing genomic features worthy of additional exploration.     

Radiation capture and conversion efficiencies of Miscanthus sacchariflorus,M. sinensis and their naturally occurring hybrid M. × giganteus

Miscanthus is a rhizomatous C4 grass of great interest as a biofuel crop because it has the potential to produce high yields over a wide geographical area with low agricultural inputs on marginal land less suitable for food production. At the moment, a clonal interspecific hybrid Miscanthus × giganteus is the most widely cultivated and studied in Europe and the United States, but breeding programmes are developing newer more productive varieties. Here, we quantified the physiological processes relating to whole season yield in a replicated plot trial in Wales, UK. Light capture and conversion efficiency were parameterized for four carefully selected genotypes (M. sinensis, M. sacchariflorus and Miscanthus × giganteus). Differences in the canopy architecture in mature stands as measured by the extinction coefficient (k) were small (0.55–0.65). Sensitivity analysis on a mathematical model of Miscanthus was performed to quantify the accumulative intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (iPAR) in the growing season using (i) k, (ii) variation in the thermal responses of leaf expansion rate, (iii) base temperature for degree days and (iv) date start of canopy expansion. A 10% increase in k or leaf area per degree day both had a minimal effect on iPAR (3%). Decreasing base temperature from 10 to 9 °C gave an 8% increase in iPAR. If the starting date for canopy expansion was the same as shoot emergence date, then the iPAR increases by 12.5%. In M. × giganteus, the whole season above ground and total (including below ground) radiation‐use efficiency (RUE) ranged from 45% to 37% higher than the noninterspecific hybrid genotypes. The greater yields in the interspecific hybrid M. × giganteus are explained by the higher RUE and not by differences in iPAR or partitioning effects. Studying the mechanisms underlying this complex trait could have wide benefits for both fuel and food production.     

Sleep apnea modifies the long‐term impact of surgically induced weight loss on cardiac function and inflammation

Objective:

Obesity is frequently associated with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Both conditions are proinflammatory and proposed to deteriorate cardiac function. We used a nested cohort study design to evaluate the long‐term impact of bariatric surgery on OSA and how weight loss and OSA relate to inflammation and cardiac performance.

Design and Methods:

At 10‐year follow‐up in the Swedish Obese Subjects (SOS) study, we identified 19 obese subjects (BMI 31.2 ± 5.3 kg m^?2), who following bariatric surgery at SOS‐baseline had displayed sustained weight losses (surgery group), and 20 obese controls (BMI 42.0 ± 6.2 kg m^?2), who during the same time‐period had maintained stable weight (control group). All study participants underwent overnight polysomnography examination, echocardiography and analysis of inflammatory markers.

Results:

The surgery group displayed a lower apnea hypopnea index (AHI) (19.9 ± 21.5 vs. 37.8 ± 27.7 n/h, P = 0.013), lower inflammatory activity (hsCRP 2.3 ± 3.0 vs. 7.2 ± 5.0 mg L^?1, P < 0.001), reduced left ventricular mass (165 ± 22 vs. 207 ± 22 g, P < 0.001) and superior left ventricular diastolic function (E/A ratio 1.24 ± 1.10 vs. 1.05 ± 0.20, P = 0.006) as compared with weight stable obese controls. In multiple regression analyses including all subjects (n = 39) and controlling for BMI, the AHI remained independently associated with hsCRP (β = 0.09, P < 0.001), TNF‐α (β = 0.03, P = 0.031), IL‐6 (β = 0.01, P = 0.007), IL 10 (β = ?0.06; P = 0.018), left ventricular mass (β = 0.64, P < 0.001), left atrial area (β = 0.08, P = 0.002), pulmonary artery pressure (β = 0.08, P = 0.011) and E/E_a ratio (β = 0.04, P = 0.021).

Conclusions:

Patients with sustained weight loss after bariatric surgery display less severe sleep apnea, reduced inflammatory activity, and enhanced cardiac function. Persisting sleep apnea appears to limit the beneficial effect of weight loss on inflammation and cardiac performance.

     

Phylogenetic relationships among some Ateles species: the use of chromosomic and molecular characters

As with most platyrrhines, the systematics of Ateles is under discussion. In order to help clarify its systematic, we employed chromosomic and molecular characters to analyze the phylogenetic relationship among some species of the genus Ateles. Chromosomic studies were conducted on 14 atelid specimens: eight Ateles from A. paniscus, A. chamek, A. belzebuth and A. geoffroyi, and six Alouatta caraya. Ateles paniscus showed 2N=32, whereas A. chamek, A. belzebuth and A. geoffroyi presented 2N=34, XX/XY (with a submetacentric X and a variable Y) corroborated by male meiosis. Nucleotide sequence variation at the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit II gene (COII) was analyzed in ten New World monkey specimens. Parsimony trees showed consistent phylogenetic relationships using both chromosomic forms and mitochondrial COII gene sequences as characters. Particularly, chromosomic phylogenies showed A. hybridus as a divergent taxon from the remaining group, whereas A. chamek, A. belzebuth and A. marginatus form an unresolved clade with A. geoffroyi as sister group.     

How far bowalization affects phytodiversity,life forms and plant morphology in Sub‐humid tropic in West Africa

Bowal or ferricrete, the final of land degradation, occurred only in tropical region. This study aimed at assessing the effects of bowalization on phytodiversity, life forms and morphological response of plant species using Combretum nigricans Leprieur ex Guill. & Perr. as a case study. Morphological parameters (height, number of stems, number of branches, diameter at breast height and crown diameter) of C. nigricans were determined in the sub‐humid zone of Benin. Plant communities were determined according to Multi‐Response Permutation Procedures analysis. Plant communities were more diversified on sand‐clay and concretion soils (control) compared with those described on bowal. C. nigricans developed more stems (3.6 ± 1.4 stems vs. 1.3 ± 0.4 stems), more branches (5.9 ± 2.4 branches vs. 3.2 ± 0.6 branches) and large crown diameter (5 ± 1.48 m vs. 3.4 ± 1.2 m) on bowal than on sand‐clay soil. The best adapted life forms on bowal were therophytes. Bowalization induced loss of phytodiversity, changes in species life forms and provoked local adaptation of tree species.     

Temperature × light interaction and tolerance of high water temperature in the planktonic freshwater flagellates Cryptomonas (Cryptophyceae) and Dinobryon (Chrysophyceae)

Using microcosm experiments, we investigated the interactive effects of temperature and light on specific growth rates of three species each of the phytoplanktonic genera Cryptomonas and Dinobryon. Several species of these genera play important roles in the food web of lakes and seem to be sensitive to high water temperature. We measured growth rates at three to four photon flux densities ranging from 10 to 240 μmol photon · m^?2 · s^?1 and at 4–5 temperatures ranging from 10°C to 28°C. The temperature × light interaction was generally strong, species specific, and also genus specific. Five of the six species studied tolerated 25°C when light availability was high; however, low light reduced tolerance of high temperatures. Growth rates of all six species were unaffected by temperature in the 10°C–15°C range at light levels ≤50 μmol photon · m^?2 · s^?1. At high light, growth rates of Cryptomonas spp. increased with temperature until the temperature optimum was reached and then declined. The Dinobryon species were less sensitive than Cryptomonas spp. to photon flux densities of 40 μmol photon · m^?2 · s^?1 and 200 μmol photon · m^?2 · s^?1 over the entire temperature range but did not grow under a combination of very low light (10 μmol photon · m^?2 · s^?1) and high temperature (≥20°C). Among the three Cryptomonas species, cell volume declined with temperature and the maximum temperature tolerated was negatively related to cell size. Since Cryptomonas is important food for microzooplankton, these trends may affect the pelagic carbon flow if lake warming continues.     

Effect of host plants on the infectivity of nucleopolyhedrovirus to Spodoptera exigua larvae

Previous studies have shown that the infectivity of baculovirus to herbivores is affected by phytochemicals ingested during the acquisition of viral inoculum on the foliage of host plants. Here, we measured the effects of 14 host plant species on the infectivity of Spodoptera exigua nucleopolyhedrovirus (SeNPV) to its larvae. The order of the LD₅₀ values of SeNPV among the host plants was Ipomoea aquatica > Brassica oleracea > Raphanus sativus > Amaranthus tricolor > Spinacia oleracea > Vigna unguiculata > Solanum melongena > Capsicum annuum > Apium graveolens > Allium fistulosum > Lactuca sativa > Brassica chinensis > Zea mays > Glycine max, with 940.1 ± 2.26, 424.0 ± 0.60, 295.2 ± 1.13, 147.3 ± 0.63, 138.6 ± 0.22, 119.9 ± 0.07, 119.8 ± 0.02, 109.2 ± 0.18, 104.8 ± 0.62, 102.1 ± 0.66, 97.9 ± 0.22, 89.9 ± 0.32, 79.0 ± 0.13 and 64.0 ± 0.38 OBs per larva, respectively, and the values of mean time to death of virus‐infected larvae were 6.21 ± 0.11, 7.12 ± 0.10, 7.33 ± 0.21, 6.97 ± 0.02, 7.06 ± 0.01, 7.29 ± 0.03, 7.32 ± 0.05, 7.07 ± 0.08, 7.24 ± 0.11, 7.09 ± 0.13, 7.50 ± 0.06, 7.23 ± 0.01, 7.30 ± 0.02 and 7.19 ± 0.07 days, respectively. The mean time to death of larvae decreased with increasing viral dose, and corrected mortality decreased as the larval mean time to death increased. These findings have significance for understanding the effects of host plants on the infectivity of baculovirus to noctuids.     

Phylogenetic studies of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cebus</Emphasis>(Cebidae-Primates) using chromosome painting and G-banding

Background  

Chromosomal painting, using whole chromosome probes from humans and Saguinus oedipus, was used to establish karyotypic divergence among species of the genus Cebus, including C. olivaceus, C. albifrons, C. apella robustus and C. apella paraguayanus. Cytogenetic studies suggested that the species of this genus have conservative karyotypes, with diploid numbers ranging from 2n = 52 to 2n = 54.     

Use of Mineral Licks by White-Bellied Spider Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Ateles belzebuth</Emphasis>) and Red Howler Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Alouatta seniculus</Emphasis>) in Eastern Ecuador

Geophagy occurs in all primate groups and is particularly common in species that consume greater quantities of plant material, i.e., leaves, fruit. The function of geophagy is not fully understood and likely varies over space and time, perhaps in connection with changes in diet. Central to a better understanding of geophagy in primate ecology is knowledge of the occurrence of such behavior among different species and seasons. We used camera traps triggered by heat and motion to document the use of mineral licks by primates over a 3-yr period at a lowland forest site in eastern Ecuador (Tiputini Biodiversity Station). Such mineral licks can be important sources of minerals, nutrients, and other compounds for a wide range of species in Amazonian forests. Although 10 species of primates are known from the study site, we obtained photographs of only 2 species, Ateles belzebuth (white-bellied spider monkey) and Alouatta seniculus (red howler) at 2 of 4 saladeros surveyed. From late December 2004 through early January 2008, we recorded 192 photographs with a total of 318 Ateles belzebuth representing ≥66 separate visits. Comparable numbers for Alouatta seniculus were 80, 121, and 37. We recorded both species visiting a mineral lick at the same time on ≥7 occasions. Use of mineral licks varied across months; we recorded more visits from November through February, the drier period at Tiputini. Visits also varied by hour, with no visits before 0830 or after 1630; Ateles belzebuth showed a stronger mid-day peak in visits. Average visit length (calculated as the time between the first and last photographs of a given visit) was similar between the 2 species but median visit length was more than twice as long for Ateles belzebuth (15 min) as for Alouatta seniculus (6 min). Results indicate that mineral licks are important in the ecology of these species, but further studies are needed to determine the precise benefit(s) obtained and how benefits may vary with diet and other factors.     

Combined effects of spray‐drying conditions and postdrying storage time and temperature on Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium survival when inoculated in liquid porcine plasma

The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the spray‐drying process on the inactivation of Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium spiked in liquid porcine plasma and to test the additive effect of immediate postdrying storage. Commercial spray‐dried porcine plasma was sterilized by irradiation and then reconstituted (1:9) with sterile water. Aliquots of reconstituted plasma were inoculated with either S. choleraesuis or S. typhimurium, subjected to spray‐drying at an inlet temperature of 200°C and an outlet temperature of either 71 or 80°C, and each spray‐drying temperature combinations were subjected to either 0, 30 or 60 s of residence time (RT) as a simulation of residence time typical of commercial dryers. Spray‐dried samples were stored at either 4·0 ± 3·0°C or 23·0 ± 0·3°C for 15 days. Bacterial counts of each Salmonella spp., were completed for all samples. For both Salmonella spp., spray‐drying at both outlet temperatures reduced bacterial counts about 3 logs at RT 0 s, while there was about a 5·5 log reduction at RT 60 s. Storage of all dried samples at either 4·0 ± 3·0°C or 23·0 ± 0·3°C for 15 days eliminate all detectable bacterial counts of both Salmonella spp.

Significance and Impact of the Study

Safety of raw materials from animal origin like spray‐dried porcine plasma (SDPP) may be a concern for the swine industry. Spray‐drying process and postdrying storage are good inactivation steps to reduce the bacterial load of Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium. For both Salmonella spp., spray‐drying at 71°C or 80°C outlet temperatures reduced bacterial counts about 3 log at residence time (RT) 0 s, while there was about a 5.5 log reduction at RT 60 s. Storage of all dried samples at either 4.0 ± 3.0°C or 23.0 ± 0.3°C for 15 days was effective for eliminating detectable bacterial counts of both Salmonella spp.     

Distinct patterns of mitochondrial genome diversity in bonobos (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan paniscus</Emphasis>) and humans

Background  

We have analyzed the complete mitochondrial genomes of 22 Pan paniscus (bonobo, pygmy chimpanzee) individuals to assess the detailed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny of this close relative of Homo sapiens.