Changes in organic phosphorus composition in boreal forest humus soils: the role of iron and aluminium

Organic phosphorus (P) is an important component of boreal forest humus soils, and its concentration has been found to be closely related to the concentration of iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al). We used solution and solid state ³¹P NMR spectroscopy on humus soils to characterize organic P along two groundwater recharge and discharge gradients in Fennoscandian boreal forest, which are also P sorption gradients due to differences in aluminium (Al) and iron (Fe) concentration in the humus. The composition of organic P changed sharply along the gradients. Phosphate diesters and their degradation products, as well as polyphosphates, were proportionally more abundant in low Al and Fe sites, whereas phosphate monoesters such as myo-, scyllo- and unknown inositol phosphates dominated in high Al and Fe soils. The concentration of inositol phosphates, but not that of diesters, was positively related to Al and Fe concentration in the humus soil. Overall, in high Al and Fe sites the composition of organic P seemed to be closely associated with stabilization processes, whereas in low Al and Fe sites it more closely reflected inputs of organic P, given the dominance of diesters which are generally assumed to constitute the bulk of organic P inputs to the soil. These gradients encompass the broad variation in soil properties detected in the wider Fennoscandian boreal forest landscape, as such our findings provide insight into the factors controlling P biogeochemistry in the region but should be of relevance to boreal forests elsewhere.     

Microbially Available Phosphorus in Boreal Forests: Effects of Aluminum and Iron Accumulation in the Humus Layer

Soil microorganisms play an important role in the mobilization of phosphorus (P), and these activities may be beneficial for plant P utilization. We investigated the effects on microbial P availability of different combinations of aluminum and iron (Al + Fe) concentrations and different P pools in humus soils from boreal forest ecosystems. We measured respiration rates in laboratory incubations before and after additions of glucose plus (NH₄)₂SO₄ (Glu+N), with or without a small dose of KH₂PO₄. Glu+N was added in excess so that the availability of the inherent soil P would be growth-limiting for the microorganisms. The exponential increases observed in microbial growth after substrate additions (Glu+N) was slower for humus soils with high Al+Fe concentrations than for humus soils with low Al+Fe concentrations. Adding a small dose of KH₂PO₄ to humus soils with high Al+Fe concentrations did, however, increase the exponential growth, measured as the slope of the log-transformed respiration rates, by more than 200%. By contrast, the average increase in exponential growth was only 6% in humus soils with low Al+Fe concentrations. Almost eight times more carbon dioxide (CO₂) was evolved between the substrate additions and the point at which the respiration rate reached 1 mg CO₂ h^–1 for soils with high Al+Fe concentrations compared to humus soils with low Al+Fe concentrations. The amount of CO₂ evolved was positively related to the Al+Fe concentration of the humus soils (r ² = 0.86, P < 0.001), whereas the slope was negatively related to Al+Fe concentration (r ² = 0.70, P < 0.001). Easily available P forms were negatively related to the Al+Fe concentration, whereas organic P showed a strong positive relationship to Al+Fe (r ² = 0.85, P < 0.001), suggesting that other forms of P, as well as inorganic P, are affected by the increased sorption capacity. The results indicate that P mobilization by microorganisms is affected by the presence of sorption sites in the humus layer, and that this capacity for sorption may relate not only to phosphate but also to organic P compounds.     

Patterns in groundwater nitrogen concentration in the floodplain of a subtropical stream (Wollombi Brook,New South Wales)

The sources of groundwater and the patterns in groundwater dissolved N and DOC concentration in the floodplain of a subtropical stream (Wollombi Brook, New South Wales) were studied over a 2-year period using three piezometer transects. While the stream was generally a discharge area for regional groundwater, this source represented only a small contribution to either the water or N budget of the alluvial aquifer. Groundwater–surface water interactions appeared mostly driven by cycles of bank recharge and discharge between the stream and the alluvial aquifer. DON and NH₄⁺ were the principal forms of dissolved N in groundwater, consistent with the primarily suboxic to anoxic conditions in the alluvial aquifer. A plume of groundwater NO₃⁻ was found at one transect where oxic conditions persisted within the riparian zone. The origin of the NO₃⁻ plume was hypothesized to be soil NO₃⁻ from the riparian zone flushed to the water table during recharge events. When present, NO₃⁻ did not reach surface water because conditions in the alluvial aquifer in the vicinity of the stream were always reduced. The concentration of groundwater DOC was variable across the floodplain and may be related to the extent of the vegetation cover. Overall, transformation and recycling of N during lateral exchange processes, as opposed to discharge of new N inputs from regional groundwater, appears to primarily control N cycling during groundwater–surface water interactions in this subtropical floodplain.     

Effect of wastewater discharge on nutrient contamination of mangrove soils and plants

The ecological impact of sewage discharges to a mangrove wetland in Futian National Nature Reserve, the People's Republic of China was assessed by comparing the plant community, plant growth and nutrient status of soils and vegetation of a site treated with settled municipal wastewater (Site A) with those of a control adjacent site (Site B) which did not receive sewage. During the one year study, the total and available N and P, and organic carbon concentrations of mangrove soils in Site A did not significantly differ from those of Site B. In both sites, the soil organic C, total N, NH₄ ^}-N and total P content exhibited a descending trend from landward to seaward regions, with the lowest measurements obtained from the most foreshore location. Seasonal variation in N content of soil samples was more obvious than any difference between wastewater treated and the control sites. The soil N content was lower in spring and summer. This was attributed to the higher temperature in these seasons which facilitated degradation of organic matter and absorption of nitrogen by the plants for growth. No significant difference in plant community structure, plant growth (in terms of tree height and diameter) and biomass was found between Sites A and B. Leaf samples of the two dominant plant species, Kandelia candel and Aegiceras corniculatum collected from Site A had comparable content of organic carbon, N, P and K to those Site B. These preliminary results indicated that the discharge of a total volume of 2600 m³ municipal wastewater to an area of 1800 m² mangrove plants over the period of a year did not produce any apparent impact on growth of the plants. The soils and plant leaves of Site A were not contaminated, in terms of nutrient content, by the discharged sewage.     

Contrasting nutrient exports from a forested and an agricultural catchment in south-eastern Australia

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and total and inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were determined over 3 years in headwater streams draining two adjacent catchments. The catchments are currently under different land use; pasture/grazing vs plantation forestry. The objectives of the work were to quantify C and nutrient export from these landuses and elucidate the factors regulating export. In both catchments, stream water dissolved inorganic nutrient concentrations exhibited strong seasonal variations. Concentrations were highest during runoff events in late summer and autumn and rapidly declined as discharge increased during winter and spring. The annual variation of stream water N and P concentrations indicated that these nutrients accumulated in the catchments during dry summer periods and were flushed to the streams during autumn storm events. By contrast, stream water DOC concentrations did not exhibit seasonal variation. Higher DOC and NO₃ ⁻ concentrations were observed in the stream of the forest catchment, reflecting greater input and subsequent breakdown of leaf-litter in the forest catchment. Annual export of DOC was lower from the forested catchment due to the reduced discharge from this catchment. In contrast however, annual export of nitrate was higher from the forest catchment suggesting that there was an additional NO₃ ⁻ source or reduction of a NO₃ ⁻ sink. We hypothesize that the denitrification capacity of the forested catchment has been significantly reduced as a consequence of increased evapotranspiration and subsequent decrease in streamflow and associated reduction in the near stream saturated area.     

Denitrification as a major regional nitrogen sink in subtropical forest catchments: Evidence from multi‐site dual nitrate isotopes

Increasing nitrogen (N) deposition in subtropical forests in south China causes N saturation, associated with significant nitrate (NO₃^?) leaching. Strong N attenuation may occur in groundwater discharge zones hydrologically connected to well‐drained hillslopes, as has been shown for the subtropical headwater catchment “TieShanPing”, where dual NO₃^? isotopes indicated that groundwater discharge zones act as an important N sink and hotspot for denitrification. Here, we present a regional study reporting inorganic N fluxes over two years together with dual NO₃^? isotope signatures obtained in two summer campaigns from seven forested catchments in China, representing a gradient in climate and atmospheric N input. In all catchments, fluxes of dissolved inorganic N indicated efficient conversion of NH₄⁺ to NO₃^? on well‐drained hillslopes, and subsequent interflow of NO₃^? over the argic B‐horizons to groundwater discharge zones. Depletion of ¹⁵N‐ and ¹⁸O–NO₃^? on hillslopes suggested nitrification as the main source of NO₃^?. In all catchments, except one of the northern sites, which had low N deposition rates, NO₃^? attenuation by denitrification occurred in groundwater discharge zones, as indicated by simultaneous ¹⁵N and ¹⁸O enrichment in residual NO₃^?. By contrast to the southern sites, the northern catchments lack continuous and well‐developed groundwater discharge zones, explaining less efficient N removal. Using a model based on ¹⁵NO₃^? signatures, we estimated denitrification fluxes from 2.4 to 21.7 kg N ha^?1 year^?1 for the southern sites, accounting for more than half of the observed N removal. Across the southern catchments, estimated denitrification scaled proportionally with N deposition. Together, this indicates that N removal by denitrification is an important component of the N budget of southern Chinese forests and that natural NO₃^? attenuation may increase with increasing N input, thus partly counteracting further aggravation of N contamination of surface waters in the region.     

Humus stock degradation and its impact on phosphorus forms in arable soils – a case of the Ukrainian Forest-Steppe Zone

Soil humus degradation strengthens nutrient mining, especially phosphorus. This study was carried out on the Ukrainian Forest-Steppe Zone (UFSZ). A total of 21 soil profiles have been investigated: 11 Phaeozems, 6 Luvisols, and 4 Chernozems. Soils were tested for particle size distribution, calcium carbonate (CC), pH, and organic carbon (C_org). The evaluation of humus degradation as a reason of P depletion was performed based on indicators such as Humus Stock Gap (HSG), Humus Stability Index (S), and Yield Gap/Gain (YG/G). In order to evaluate the degree of P depletion, total phosphorus (P_tot) and its five fractions: water soluble – P_H2O, exchangeable – P_EX, bound to Fe and Al – P_Fe/Al, bound to Ca – P_Ca, and residual P – Pres, have been determined.

Data revealed that in 14 of 21 investigated soils, S indices were below the threshold its value of nine, considered as the balanced content of humus with respect to soil texture. Next, in 11 of 21 cases, the negative humus balance indicates the yield gap in Phaeozems and Chernozems. The first three P pools (P_H2O, P­EX and P_Al/Fe) in Phaeozems were exhausted, constituting less than 10% of the P_tot. In Phaeozems, P_Al/Fe, in Luvisols, P_EX, and in Chernozems, P_H2O fractions were basic indicators of available P status. Their pools were directly or indirectly controlled by PCa. Humus content in Phaeozems and Chernozems revealed as the key factor impacting both total P and/or its available resources. Amelioration of P depletion requires efforts oriented on restoration of soil humus stock, concomitant with P fertilization.     

City refuse compost as a phosphorus source to overcome the P-fixation capacity of sesquioxide-rich soils

In sesquioxide-rich soils of tropical and subtropical areas and volcanic-ash soils with high levels of active Al(Fe), large amounts of phosphate fertilizers are needed to overcome their high P-fixation capacity (quenching strategy). A greenhouse pot experiment has been used to evaluate the effectiveness of city refuse compost (CRC) as a P-source for these variable-charge soils, compared to inorganic P. Mature CRC and K₂HPO₄ were applied at rates equivalent to 125, 250, 375, 500 and 625 kg P ha^–1 to a ferrallitic soils from Tenerife Island (Andeptic Paleudult) with a high content in active Al+Fe (4.82%) and a high P-fixation capacity (87%). Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) was grown in pots and plants were harvested at regular intervals after seedling emergence. CRC increases plant P concentration and soil labile-P proportional to the applied rate. The best results were obtained from a compost application of 30 t ha^–1 equivalent-rate, after a residence time of at least three months. An important residual effect in the supply capacity of P in relation to the phosphate fertilizer was also observed. The relative agronomic effectiveness (RAE) in comparison to K₂HPO₄ was 66% after 6 months, considering P uptake + soil labile-P. The soil P-fixation capacity was significantly reduced from a compost application of 40 t ha^–1 equivalent-rate. Competition in adsorption between organic ligands and phosphate, in combination with net mineralization of organic P in compost, might account for the high RAE value obtained. The main conclusion is that the city refuse compost could be a suitable P-amendment for resquioxic soils due to its high RAE, and the residual effect on P-supply. ei]H. Lambers     

Relationships Between Tree and Soil Properties in Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris Forests in Sweden

The exchange of elements between plants and the soil in which they are growing creates reciprocal control of their element composition. Within plants, the growth rate hypothesis from ecological stoichiometry implies a strong coupling between C, N, and P. No similar theory exists for predicting relationships between elements in the soil or relationships between plants and the soil. We used a data set of element concentrations in needles and humus of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) forests in Sweden to investigate the extent to which relationships between elements (C, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Al) can be observed within and between plants and soils. We found element composition to be more strongly controlled in needles than in humus. Elements that are covalently bound were also more strongly controlled, with no apparent differences between macro- and micronutrients. With the exception of N/C, there were surprisingly few relationships between elements in needles and humus. We found no major differences between the two tree species studied, but investigations of additional forest types are needed for firm conclusions. More control over element composition was exercised with respect to N than C, particularly in needles, so it might be advantageous to express nutrient concentrations relative to N rather than on a dry weight or carbon basis. Variations in many ecosystem variables appeared to lack ecological significance and thus an important task is to identify the meaningful predictors.     

Influence of organic matter on the availability of certain elements to barley seedlings grown by a modified neubauer method

Summary The influence of organic matter on the availability of 17 elements (Na, K, Cs¹³⁷, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, N, P, B, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Mo, Al, and Si) to barley seedlings grown by a modified Neubauer technique was determined. Three different soils that were treated with dry ground mustard spinach leaves (1 g/100 g soil) and incubated for various lengths of time (0, 1, 2, 5, 9, 13, and 17 weeks) in moist condition before cropping were used for this study.The addition of organic matter to the soils increased the plant yields. The average N and K concentrations were consistently increased in the plants grown in soils with added organic matter. The average concentration of B, P, Na, Mg, Sr, Ba, and Si were almost consistently decreased in the plants. The average contents of Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ca, and Al varied with the soil types and precropping incubation time. The average Cs¹³⁷ contents of the plants were reduced considerably by the addition of organic matter to the soils. The reduction of Cs¹³⁷ contents ranged from 29 to 75 per cent, depending on the pre-cropping incubation time and soil type. The main factors causing this reduction were considered to be microbial immobilization, ion antagonism by K, carbohydrate dilution, and the state of decomposition and the kind of organic matter added to the soils.     

Oxygen supply and the adaptations of animals in groundwater

1. The first part of this review focuses on the oxygen status of natural groundwater systems (mainly porous aquifers) and hyporheic zones of streams. The second part examines the sensitivity of groundwater organisms, especially crustaceans, to low oxygen concentrations (< 3.0 mg L^?1 O₂). 2. Dissolved oxygen (DO) in groundwater is spatially heterogeneous at macro- (km), meso- (m) and micro- (cm) scales. This heterogeneity, an essential feature of the groundwater environment, reflects changes in sediment composition and structure, groundwater flow velocity, organic matter content, and the abundance and activity of micro-organisms. Dissolved oxygen also exhibits strong temporal changes in the hyporheic zone of streams as well as in the recharge area of aquifers, but these fluctuations should be strongly attenuated with increasing distance from the stream and the recharge zone. 3. Dissolved oxygen gradients along flow paths in groundwater systems and hyporheic zones vary over several orders of magnitude (e.g. declines of 9 × 10^?5 to 1.5 ×10^?2 mg L^?1 O₂ m^?1 in confined aquifers and 2 × 10^?2 to 1 mg L^?1 O₂ m^?1 in parafluvial water). Several factors explain this strong variation. Where the water table is close to the surface, oxygen is likely to be consumed rapidly in the first few metres below the water table because of incomplete degradation of soil-generated labile dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the vadose zone. Where the water table is far from the surface, strong oxygen depletion in the vicinity of the water table does not occur, DO being then gradually consumed as groundwater flows down the hydraulic gradient. In unconfined groundwater systems, oxygen consumption along flow paths may be compensated by down-gradient replenishment of DO, resulting either from the ingress of atmospheric oxygen or water recharge through the vadose zone. In confined groundwater systems, where replenishment of oxygen is impossible, the removal time of DO varies from a few years to more than 10 000 years, depending mainly on the organic carbon content of the sediment. Comparison of the hyporheic zones between systems also revealed strong differences in the removal time and length of underground pathways for DO. This strong variability among systems seems related to differences in contact time of water with sediment. 4. Although groundwater macro-crustaceans are much more resistant to hypoxia than epigean species, they cannot survive severe hypoxia (DO < 0.01 mg L^?1 O₂) for very long (lethal time for 50% of the population ranged from 46.7 to 61.7 h). In severe hypoxia, none of the hypogean crustaceans examined utilized a high-ATP yielding metabolic pathway. High survival times are mainly a result of the combination of three mechanisms: a high storage of fermentable fuels (glycogen and phosphagen), a low metabolic rate in normoxia, and a further reduction in metabolic rate by reducing locomotion and ventilation. It is suggested here that the low metabolic rate of many hypogean species may be an adaptation to low oxygen and not necessarily result from an impoverished food supply. 5. An interesting physiological feature of hypogean crustaceans is their ability to recover from anaerobic stress and, more specifically, rapidly to resynthesize glycogen stores during post-hypoxic recovery. A high storage and rapid restoration of fermentable fuels (without feeding) allows groundwater crustaceans to exploit a moving mosaic of suboxic (< 0.3 mg L?1 O₂), dysoxic (0.3–3.0 mg L^?1 O₂) and oxic (> 3 mg L^?1 O₂) patches. 6. It is concluded that although hypogean animals are probably unsuited for life in extensively or permanently suboxic groundwater, they can be found in small or temporarily suboxic patches. Indeed, their adaptations to hypoxia are clearly suited for life in groundwater characterized by spatially heterogeneous or highly dynamic DO concentrations. Their capacity to survive severe hypoxia for a few days and to recover rapidly would explain partly why ecological field studies often reveal the occurrence of interstitial taxa in groundwater with a wide range of DO.     

Element concentrations in boreal,coniferous forest humus layers in relation to moss chemistry and soil factors

Concentrations of 15 elements (Al, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S and Zn) in the current annual growth increments of the ectohydric feather moss, Hylocomium splendens, were compared with those in the humus layer (Of+Oh) of coniferous forests at 353 sites throughout Finland. Moss concentrations in the moss increments were considered measures of atmospheric deposition of these elements. Concentrations in both moss and humus layer samples were negatively correlated with latitude, except Mn (moss) and Cr and Ni (humus layer), indicating a direct effect of deposition. Spearman correlations between concentrations in moss and humus layer samples were significant (P<0.05) for all elements; that for Pb concentrations was the highest (r_s=0.60) while those for the other elements were ≤0.48. Using thickness and organic matter content of the humus layer, clay content of the mineral soil (5–20 cm layer) and the concentration in the moss explained between 8% (Cd) and 44% (Cr, Mg) of the variation in the concentrations in the humus layer samples. It was concluded that, for most elements, concentration in the humus layer are a poor indicator of current atmospheric deposition levels, at least in relatively unpolluted regions such as Finland.     

Biogeochemical processes in the groundwater discharge zone of urban streams

The influence of biogeochemical processes on nitrogen and organic matter transformation and transport was investigated for two urban streams receiving groundwater discharge during the dry summer baseflow period. A multiple lines of evidence approach involving catchment-, and stream reach-scale investigations were undertaken to describe the factors that influence pore water biogeochemical processes. At the catchment-scale gaining stream reaches were identified from water table mapping and groundwater discharge estimated to be between 0.1 and 0.8 m³ m^?2 d^?1 from baseflow analysis. Sediment temperature profiles also suggested that the high groundwater discharge limited stream water infiltration into the sediments. At the stream reach-scale, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) concentrations were higher in stream water than in groundwater. However, DOC and DON concentrations were greatest in sediment pore water. This suggests that biodegradation of sediment organic matter contributes dissolved organic matter (DOM) to the streams along with that delivered with groundwater flow. Pore water ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) was closely associated with areas of high pore water DOM concentrations and evidence of sulfate (SO₄ ^2?) reduction (low concentration and SO₄:Cl ratio). This indicates that anoxic DOM mineralization was occurring associated with SO₄ ^2? reduction. However the distribution of anoxic mineralization was limited to the center of the streambed, and was not constrained by the distribution of sediment organic matter which was higher along the banks. Lower sediment temperatures measured along the banks compared to the center suggests, at least qualitatively, that groundwater discharge is higher along the banks. Based on this evidence anoxic mineralization is influenced by groundwater residence time, and is only measurable along the center of the stream where groundwater flux rates are lower. This study therefore shows that the distribution of biogeochemical processes in stream sediments, such as anoxic mineralization, is strongly influenced by both the biogeochemical conditions and pore water residence time.     

Acid-Base Regulation by Azolla spp. with N2 as Sole N Source and with Supplementation by NH+4 or NO−3

Diazotrophic cultures of three species of Azolla (Az. caroliniana, Az. microphylla, Az. pinnata) symbiotic with Anabaena azollae accumulated some 0.10–0.24 mol organic anion per mol N assimilated (0.010–0.018 mol organic anion per mol C assimilated), with a corresponding efflux of 0.05–0.11 mol H⁺ per mol N assimilated (0.006–0.009 mol H⁺ per mol C assimilated). These values are lower than those found for terrestrial diazotrophic vascular plants; this may be related to the decreased possibility of increasing Fe and P availability by rhizosphere acidification in a free-floating plant. Modification of the organic anion content, and of the quantity (and direction) of H⁺ exchange with the medium, with 5 mol m^?3 NH⁺₄ or NO^?₃ added to diazotrophic cultures, are consistent with substantial N acquisition from combined N as well as N₂ assimilation. This conclusion is consistent with previously published work with ¹⁵N.     

Iron- and aluminium-induced depletion of molybdenum in acidic environments impedes the nitrogen cycle

Anthropogenic nitrate contamination is a serious problem in many natural environments. Nitrate removal by microbial action is dependent on the metal molybdenum (Mo), which is required by nitrate reductase for denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium. The soluble form of Mo, molybdate (MoO₄²⁻), is incorporated into and adsorbed by iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) (oxy) hydroxide minerals. Herein we used Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR) as a model nitrate-contaminated acidic environment to investigate whether the formation of Fe- and Al-precipitates could impede microbial nitrate removal by depleting Mo. We demonstrate that Fe and Al mineral formation that occurs as the pH of acidic synthetic groundwater is increased, decreases soluble Mo to low picomolar concentrations, a process proposed to mimic environmental diffusion of acidic contaminated groundwater. Analysis of ORR sediments revealed recalcitrant Mo in the contaminated core that co-occurred with Fe and Al, consistent with Mo scavenging by Fe/Al precipitates. Nitrate removal by ORR isolate Pseudomonas fluorescens N2A2 is virtually abolished by Fe/Al precipitate-induced Mo depletion. The depletion of naturally occurring Mo in nitrate- and Fe/Al-contaminated acidic environments like ORR or acid mine drainage sites has the potential to impede microbial-based nitrate reduction thereby extending the duration of nitrate in the environment.     

The importance of FeEDTA for reversibility of phosphate-induced chlorosis in maize (Zea mays L.)

Chlorosis induced with a supraoptimum dose of phosphorus in nutrient solution (69 mg P l^-1) was reverted by spraying of leaves of chlorotio maize plants (Zea mays L.) with FeEDTA. Biomass formation, chlorophyll and iron content were decreased in the above-ground parts of plants grown under chlorosis-inducing conditions. Spraying always decreased content of inorganic phosphorus (P_i/Fe ratio was significantly changed), increased chlorophyll content in old plants and stimulated dry mass formation at supraoptimum phosphorus doses. FeEDTA application improved phosphate utilization (portion of phosphate in organic bonds was increased). This may be the basis of chlorosis-reverting effect of FeEDTA.     

Effects of temporary desiccation on the mobility of phosphorus and metals in sulphur-rich fens: differential responses of sediments and consequences for water table management

In the Netherlands, permanent damming of sulphate (SO₄ ^2–)-rich surface water, in order to rewet desiccated wetlands, has resulted in stagnation and eutrophication of surface water. Permanent damming of surface water prevents periodic drought during summer and leads to suppressed iron (Fe)-rich groundwater input and to stimulated SO₄ ^2– reduction, all likely stimulating depletion of reducible Fe in the sediment. A laboratory experiment was conducted to assess the importance of temporary desiccation, its differential effects on various sediment types and the consequences for water table management. Permanent high SO₄ ^2–-rich surface water tables above sediments that are indirectly affected by shallow groundwater flows, resulted in severe eutrophication. The effect of temporary desiccation on phosphorus (P) mobilization and immobilization strongly depended on the sediment Fe and P pools in combination with the buffering capacity of the sediment. Desiccation of sediment that is indirectly affected by shallow groundwater flows, led to a long-lasting reduction in phosphate (o-PO₄ ^3–) release from the sediment because a reduced Fe pool is present, resulting in the release of Fe upon oxidation. Formerly dry sediments that have not been influenced by groundwater for a long time do not possess such a reduced Fe pool and desiccation did not reduce P-release from these sediments resulting in considerable eutrophication of the water layer immediately after rewetting. In sediment of seepage zones that are directly and permanently influenced by deeper groundwater, reduced Fe and calcium levels are so high that o-PO₄ ^3– was effectively immobilized under oxidized as well as reduced conditions. The results indicate that restoration of desiccated wetlands can not be achieved by simply retaining water by means of constructed dams. If water retention is artificially increased, temporary drops in water level during the summer are necessary to recharge the reducible P-binding Fe pool in large zones of the wetlands in order to prevent eutrophication.     

Fe chelates from compost microorganisms improve Fe nutrition of soybean and oat

Iron availability to plants is often limited when soil pH is 7 or higher. In C rich, but Fe limiting environments, microorganisms may produce organic chelators that complex Fe and increase its availability to plants. Seedlings of soybean (Glycine max L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) plants, with Fe-efficient or inefficient uptake mechanisms, were grown in an Fe free nutrient solution at pH 7.5. Experiments (using a complete factorial design) were conducted in which these seedlings were transferred to a fresh nutrient solution and treated with Fe sources (FeCl₃, FeEDDHA, and Fe complexed with chelators produced by compost microorganisms (CCMs) after their enrichment in an Fe free, glucose medium), Fe concentrations (0 and 6.7 M) and antibiotic (0 and 100 mg streptomycin L^-1). Dry weight of soybean plants and Fe uptake were significantly (P 0.05) higher when Fe was supplied as ⁵⁹FeCCM than as⁵⁹ FeCl₃ and similar to when Fe was supplied as⁵⁹ FeEDDHA. Dry weight of the Fe-inefficient Tam 0-312 oat cultivar was also significantly higher when Fe was supplied as FeCCM. Fe uptake by oat, when supplied as ⁵⁹FeCCM, was twice that for⁵⁹ FeEDDHA and ⁵⁹FeCl₃. Chlorophyll concentration in plants supplied with FeCCM and FeEDDHA was significantly greater (P 0.05) than in minus Fe control plants and in FeCl₃ supplied plants. Activities of catalase and peroxidase, measured as indicators of Fe nutrition in soybean and oats, were generally increased when Fe was supplied with FeCCM as compared to the other Fe sources. The experimental conditions in which the CCMs were produced are similar to those in soil after amendment with manures or other readily available organic materials. These CCMs can bind with Fe, even under slightly alkaline conditions, and effectively improve Fe nutrition of soybean and oat.     

Retention of soluble organic nutrients by a forested ecosystem

We document an example of a forested watershed at the Coweeta HydrologicLaboratory with an extraordinary tendency to retain dissolved organic matter(DOM) generated in large quantities within the ecosystem. Our objectives weretodetermine fluxes of dissolved organic C, N, and P (DOC, DON, DOP,respectively),in water draining through each stratum of the ecosystem and synthesizeinformation on the physicochemical, biological and hydrologic factors leadingtoretention of dissolved organic nutrients in this ecosystem. The ecosystemretained 99.3, 97.3, and 99.0% of water soluble organic C, N and P,respectively, produced in litterfall, throughfall, and root exudates. Exportsinstreamwater were 4.1 kg ha^–1yr^–1of DOC, 0.191 kg ha^–1 yr^–1 ofDON, and 0.011 kg ha^–1 yr^–1 ofDOP. Fluxes of DON were greater than those of inorganic N in all strata. MostDOC, DON, and DOP was removed from solution in the A and B horizons, with DOCbeing rapidly adsorbed to Fe and Al oxyhydroxides, most likely by ligandexchange. DON and DOC were released gradually from the forest floor over theyear. Water soluble organic C produced in litterfall and throughfall had adisjoint distribution of half-decay times with very labile and veryrefractory fractions so that most labile DOC was decomposed before beingleachedinto the mineral soil and refractory fractions dominated the DOC transportedthrough the ecosystem. We hypothesize that this watershed retained solubleorganic nutrients to an extraordinary degree because the soils have very highcontents of Fe and Al oxyhydroxides with high adsorption capacities and becausethe predominant hydrologic pathway is downwards as unsaturated flow through astrongly adsorbing A and B horizon. The well recognized retention mechanismsforinorganic nutrients combine with adsorption of DOM and hydrologic pathway toefficiently prevent leaching of both soluble inorganic andorganic nutrients in this watershed.     

Vertical distribution of biological and geochemical phosphorus subcycles in two southern Appalachian forest soils

We measured Al, Fe, and P fractions by horizon in two southern Appalachian forest soil profiles, and compared solution PO₄ ^–1 removal in chloroform-sterilized and non-sterilized soils, to determine whether biological and geochemical P subcycles were vertically stratified in these soils. Because organic matter can inhibit Al and Fe oxide crystallization, we hypothesized that concentrations of non-crystalline (oxalate-extractable) Al (Al₀) and Fe (Fe₀), and concomitantly P sorption, would be greatest in near-surface mineral (A) horizons of these soils.Al₀ and Fe₀ reached maximum concentrations in forest floor and near-surface mineral horizons, declined significantly with depth in the mineral soil, and were highly correlated with P sorption capacity. Small pools of readily acid-soluble (AF-extractable) and readily-desorbable P suggested that PO₄ ^3– was tightly bound to Al and Fe hydroxide surfaces. P sorption in CHCl₃-sterilized mineral soils did not differ significantly from P sorption in non-sterilized soils, but CHCl₃ sterilization reduced P sorption 40–80% in the forest floor. CHCl₃ labile (microbial) P also reached maximum concentrations in forest floor and near-surface mineral horizons, comprising 31–35% of forest floor organic P. Combined with previous estimates of plant root distributions, data suggest that biological and geochemical P subcycles are not distinctly vertically stratified in these soils. Plant roots, soil microorganisms, and P sorbing minerals all reach maximum relative concentrations in near-surface mineral horizons, where they are likely to compete strongly for PO₄ ^3– available in solution.