Changes in growth and pigment concentrations with leaf age in pea under modulated UV-B radiation field treatments

We assessed whether growth of garden pea (Pisum sativum mutant Argenteum) was reduced under ecologically relevant enhancements of ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B, 280–320 nm) by employing modulated field lampbanks which simulated 0, 16 or 24% ozone depiction. In addition, we determined whether enhanced UV-B altered the concentration and distribution of chlorophyll and UV-B-absorbing compounds in leaves, and whether this was dependent on leaf age. There were no significant UV-B effects on the four whole-plant parameters we examined (height, above-ground biomass, total leaflet area or average leaflet area). Of the 12 leaf-level parameters we examined, UV-B had a significant effect (P < 0.05) on only one parameter: the ratio of UV-B-absorbing compounds to chlorophyll, which was greatest at the highest UV-B level. Total chlorophyll concentrations tended to be lower under enhanced UV-B (P= 0.11), while the proportion of UV-B-absorbing compounds in the adaxial epidermis tended to be higher (P= 0.11). Total leaf concentrations of UV-B-absorbing compounds were unaffected by UV-B level. Cooler, suboptimal growing conditions during this late summer/early autumn experiment may have masked some potential UV-B effects. In contrast to the UV-B effects, we found strong leaf-age effects on nearly all parameters that we assessed. On an area basis, concentrations of total chlorophyll and UV-B-absorbing compounds increased with leaf age, while Chlorophyll a/b) ratios decreased. One of the few parameters unaffected by leaf age was the ratio of UV-B-absorbing compounds to total chlorophyll, which remained constant within a given UV-B treatment. Pea was much less sensitive to enhanced UV-B than in previous growth-chamber and greenhouse studies, and in nearly all cases UV-B treatment effects were overshadowed by leaf-age effects. In view of the large effect leaf age had on concentrations of UV-B-absorbing compounds, as well as their distribution within leaves, researchers may need to consider leaf age in UV-B experimental designs.     

Relating UV-B radiation screening effectiveness of foliage to absorbing-compound concentration and anatomical characteristics in a diverse group of plants

The ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B, 300 nm) screening effectiveness of foliage of a diverse group of plants was examined by measuring epidermal transmittance and depth of penetration of UV-B with a fiberoptic microprobe. In addition, the concentration of UV-B-absorbing compounds and various anatomical characteristics were measured to assess whether they were useful predictors of UV-B screening. Sun foliage of naturally growing individuals of seven species were sampled in each of six life forms comprising two evergreen groups (gymnosperms and angiosperms) and four deciduous angiosperm groups (trees, shrubs and vines, herbaceous dicotyledons, and grasses). There was significant life-form variation in epidermal transmittance and depth of penetration of UV-B, concentration of UV-B-absorbing compounds (leaf-area basis), epidermal (including cuticle and hypodermis) thickness, and specific leaf area. Values of these parameters tended to be related to leaf longevity, with the most notable differences apparent between evergreen and deciduous species. The mean epidermal transmittance and depth of penetration of UV-B in foliage averaged 4% and 32 m in evergreens, compared to 28% and 75 m in deciduous species. These values are conservative estimates since the microprobe was oriented in foliage such that much of the side- and backscattered UV-B was ignored. The strongest predictors of epidermal transmittance and depth of penetration were epidermal thickness and the concentration of absorbing compounds, which averaged 32 m and 1.50 A cm^–2 in evergreens, but only 19 m and 0.99 A cm^–2 in deciduous foliage. However, the variation found in these relationships implies that additional factors warrant consideration in assessing UV-B-screening effectiveness. The relatively ineffective screening of UV-B by foliage of many deciduous plants suggests they may be more responsive to enhanced UV-B than evergreen species.     

Solar ultraviolet-B radiation influence on Sphagnum bog and Carex fen ecosystems: first field season findings in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina

Stratospheric ozone depletion occurs over Tierra del Fuego, southern Argentina and Chile, in the austral spring and summer due to the precession of the Antarctic ‘ozone hole’ and the general erosion of the ozone layer. Plots receiving either near-ambient or reduced UV-B radiation were established using different louvered plastic film filters over Sphagnum bog and Carex fen ecosystems in October 1996. In the Sphagnum bog system, growth measurements during the late spring and summer showed no significant differences in the moss Sphagnum magellanicum, or the vascular plants (Empetrum rubrum, Nothofagus antarctica, and Tetroncium magellanicum) between near-ambient and attenuated UV-B radiation treatments. In the Carex fen system, leaf length and spike height did not differ in the two dominant species, Carex decidua and C. curta, between UV-B radiation treatments. The length of individual spikelets of C. curta under near-ambient UV-B radiation was less than under the reduced UV-B radiation treatment, but this was not evident in C. decidua. No differences in seed number, seed mass, or viability were seen in either Carex species between the UV-B treatments. Two important constituents of the microfauna that inhabit the Sphagnum bog are testate amoebae and rotifers. These both appeared to be more numerous under near-ambient UV-B radiation than under reduced UV-B radiation. The subtle responses of the Sphagnum and Carex ecosystems may become more apparent in subsequent years as the treatments are continued. Trophic-level changes, such as the differences in number of amoebae and rotifers, may be more sensitive to solar UV-B radiation than growth and productivity of the vegetation.     

Spectral balance and UV-B sensitivity of soybean: a field experiment

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] cultivar Essex was grown and tested for sensitivity to UV-B radiation (280–320 nm) under different combinations of UV-A (320–400 nm) and PFD (400–700 nm) radiation in four simultaneous field experiments. The radiation conditions were effected with combinations of filtered solar radiation and UV-B and UV-A lamps electronically modulated to track ambient radiation. Significant UV-B-caused decreases in total aboveground production and growth were seen only when PFD and UV-A were reduced to less than half their flux in sunlight. When PFD was low, UV-A appeared to be particularly effective in mitigating UV-B damage. However, when PFD was high, substantial UV-A did not appear to be required for UV-B damage mitigation. Leaf chlorophyll fluorescence did not indicate photosynthetic damage under any radiation combination. With UV-B, leaves in all experiments exhibited increased UV-absorbing pigments and decreased whole-leaf UV transmittance. Results of these field experiments indicate difficulties in extrapolating from UV-B experiments conducted in glasshouse or growth cabinet conditions to plant UV-B sensitivity in the field. Implications for UV radiation weighting functions in evaluating atmospheric ozone reduction are also raised.     

Changes in UV-B radiation screening effectiveness with leaf age in Rhododendron maximum

We examined how ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B; 300 nm) screening effectiveness changes with leaf age in Rhododendron maximum growing in a shaded understory by measuring depth of penetration and epidermal transmittance with a fibre-optic microprobe. Depth of penetration (and epidermal transmittance) of UV-B decreased with leaf age in 1- to 4-year-old leaves, averaging 62 (32), 52 (22), 45 (16) and 48 μm (13%), respectively. Epidermal thickness increased with age in 1- to 4-year-old leaves due to a thickening of the cuticle from an average of 20 to 29μm. Ultraviolet-B-absorbing compound concentrations increased with age from 1–3 to 1–5 A₃₀₀ cm^?2 leaf area. Concentrations of UV-B-absorbing compounds (area basis) were a strong predictor of depth of penetration (r²= 0.82) and epidermal transmittance (r²= 0.95) of UV-B in mature (1–4 year-old) foliage. Chlorophyll concentrations (area basis) increased in leaves up to 3 years of age. Current-year leaves (30 d old) were exceptional in that while they were particularly effective at screening UV-B (depth of penetration and epidermal transmittance averaged 39μm and 5%, respectively) they had relatively low concentrations of UV-B-absorbing compounds (1.3 A₃₀₀ cm^?2). Our findings show that UV-B-screening effectiveness is not necessarily related to absorbing compound concentrations on a whole-leaf basis, possibly due to anatomical changes within the epidermis that occur with leaf age.     

Early-season effects of supplemented solar UV-B radiation on seedling emergence, canopy structure, simulated stand photosynthesis and competition for light

Mixtures and monocultures of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and wild oat (Avena fatua), a common weedy competitor of wheat, were exposed to enhanced solar UV-B radiation simulating a 20% reduction in stratospheric ozone to assess the timing and seasonal development of the UV-B effects on light competition in these species. Results from two years of field study revealed that UV-B enhancement had no detectable effect on the magnitude or timing of seedling emergence in either species. End-of-season measurements showed significant UV-B inhibition of leaf insertion height in wild oat in mixture and monoculture in the second year (irrigated year) but not in the first year (drought year). Leaf insertion height of wheat was not affected by UV-B in either year. The UV-B treatment had no detectable effect on monoculture or total (combined species) mixture LAI but did significantly increase (5–7%) the fractional contribution of wheat to the mixture LAI after four weeks of growth in both years. In addition, the UV-B treatment had subtle effects on LAI height profiles with early season mixtures showing significant reductions in wild oat LAI in lower canopy layers in both years while midseason Year 2 mixtures showed significant reductions in wild oat LAI in upper canopy layers. The changes in canopy structure were found to significantly increase (6–7%) the proportional simulated clear sky canopy photosynthesis and light interception of wheat in mixture. These findings, and others, indicate that the effects of UV-B enhancement on competition are realized very early in canopy development and provide additional support for the hypothesis that UV-B enhancement may shift the balance of competition between these species indirectly by altering competitive interactions for light.     

Seasonal accumulation of ultraviolet-B screening pigments in needles of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.)

Conifer needles are highly effective in screening ultraviolet-B radiation (280–320 nm). This ability is mainly attributed to the presence of flavonoids and hydroxycinnamic acids in the epidermal tissue. In two field cabinet experiments with two different clones of Norway spruce we assessed the seasonal accumulation of UV-B screening pigments under near-ambient, and close-to-zero UV-B irradiation. At the beginning of needle development, i.e. in June, kaempferol 3- O -glucoside was the dominant UV-B screening pigment. It was replaced during needle differentiation by the more effective diacylated flavonol glucosides, particulary kaempferol 3- O -(3",6"- O -di- p -coumaroyl)-glucoside, which reached highest concentrations in July. In addition to the soluble pool of diacylated flavonol glucoside derivatives, a cell wall-bound UV-B screen in the epidermal cell walls was formed during needle differentiation, consisting mainly of p -coumaric acid and kaempferol 3- O -glucoside. An effect of UV-B radiation on the accumulation of diacylated flavonol glucosides was only observed in 1996 with clone 2, when the concentrations of kaempferol 3- O -(3",6"- O -di- p -coumaroyl)-glucoside were significantly higher in July and August under field, and near-ambient than under close-to-zero UV-B irradiance. For wall-bound p -coumaric acid and kaempferol 3- O -glucoside UV-B radiation enhanced the concentrations of these compounds by approximately 20% in relation to the concentrations in close-to-zero UV-B-treated plants in both field cabinet experiments.     

Ecophysiological aspects of biomass production in higher plants

Photosynthesis as a cosmic process of local entropy decrease is the basic phenomenon for life on Earth. Biomass production is energetically understood as a long-term storage of hydrogen. Endogeneously, the hierarchy of energy storage begins with the electric and proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane. At all higher levels of energy-converting system, efficiency is determined by the interactions between the autotrophic and heterotrophic part of the studied biosystem. Specially, the regulatory function of anabolic and catabolic reduction charge is discussed. From the frame of exogeneous factors, the action of calcium in connection with calmodulin is described as a second messenger.Summarizing, the findings are integrated into the energy-overflow concept in which the loss terms act as system stabilizers especially under injuring conditions.Paper presented at the FESPP meeting in Strasbourg (1984).     

Molecular biology, genetics and regulation of nitrite reduction in higher plants

Nitrite reductase (ferredoxin:nitrite oxidoreductase, EC 1.6.6.1) carries out the six-electron reduction of nitrite to ammonium ions in the chloroplasts/plastids of higher plants. The complete or partial nucleotide sequences of a number of nitrite reductase apoprotein genes or cDNAs have been determined. Deduced amino acid sequence comparisons have identified conserved regions, one of which probably is involved in binding the sirohaem/4Fe4S centre and another in binding the electron donor, reduced ferredoxin. The nitrite reductase apoprotein is encoded by the nuclear DNA and is synthesised as a precursor carrying an N-terminal extension, the transit peptide, which acts to target the protein to, and within, the chloroplast/plastid. In those plants examined the number of nitrite reductase apoprotein genes per haploid genome ranges from one (barley, spinach) to four ( Nicotiana tabacum ). Mutants defective in the nitrite reductase apoprotein gene have been isolated in barley. During plastidogenesis in etiolated plants, synthesis of nitrite reductase is regulated by nitrate, light (phytochrome), and an uncharacterised 'plastidic factor' produced by functional chloroplasts. In leaves of green, white-light-grown plants up-regulation of nitrite reductase synthesis is achieved via nitrate and light and down-regulation by a nitrogenous end-product of nitrate assimilation, perhaps glutamine. A role for phytochrome has not been demonstrated in green, light-grown plants. Light regulation of nitrite reductase genes is related more closely to that of photosynthetic genes than to the nitrate reductase gene. In roots of green, white-light-grown plants nitrate alone is able to bring about synthesis of nitrite reductase, suggesting that the root may possess a mechanism that compensates for the light requirement seen in the leaf.     

Sulfur metabolism in higher plants: potential for phytoremediation

Sulfur is a major nutrient for all organisms. Plant species have a high biodiversity in uptake, metabolization and accumulation of sulfur so that there are potentials to use plants for phytoremediation of sulfur-enriched sites. A survey of soils enriched with sulfur either naturally or by human activities shows that a surplus of sulfur is mostly accompanied with a surplus of other chemical elements which may limit phytoremediation because these co-occurring elements are more toxic to plants than sulfur. In addition, the accumulation of the other elements makes the plant material (phyto-extraction) less suitable for the use as fodder and for human consumption.     

Nickel: a micronutrient essential for higher plants

Nickel was established as an essential micronutrient for the growth of temperate cereal crops. Grain from barley (Hordeum vulgare L. cv `Onda'; containing 40 to 80 nanograms of Ni per gram dry weight) grown in solution culture with negligible Ni concentrations (< 30 nanograms of Ni per liter) exhibited greatly reduced germination rates (i.e. 50% less than grain from Ni-adequate plants) and seedling vigor of the viable grain was greatly depressed. Grain containing less than 30 nanograms per gram dry weight was inviable. Under Ni-deficient conditions, barley plants fail to produce viable grain because of a disruption of the maternal plant's normal grain-filling and maturation processes that occur following formation of the grain embryo. The observations that (a) barley plants fail to complete their life cycle in the absence of Ni and (b) addition of Ni to the growth medium completely alleviates deficiency symptoms in the maternal plants satisfies the essentiality criteria; thus, Ni should be considered a micronutrient for cereals. Because Ni is required by legumes, and is now established as essential for cereals, we conclude that Ni should be added to the list of micronutrients essential for all higher plant growth.     

A unifying explanation for variation in ozone sensitivity among woody plants

Tropospheric ozone is considered the most detrimental air pollutant for vegetation at the global scale, with negative consequences for both provisioning and climate regulating ecosystem services. In spite of recent developments in ozone exposure metrics, from a concentration‐based to a more physiologically relevant stomatal flux‐based index, large‐scale ozone risk assessment is still complicated by a large and unexplained variation in ozone sensitivity among tree species. Here, we explored whether the variation in ozone sensitivity among woody species can be linked to interspecific variation in leaf morphology. We found that ozone tolerance at the leaf level was closely linked to leaf dry mass per unit leaf area (LMA) and that whole‐tree biomass reductions were more strongly related to stomatal flux per unit leaf mass (r² = 0.56) than to stomatal flux per unit leaf area (r² = 0.42). Furthermore, the interspecific variation in slopes of ozone flux–response relationships was considerably lower when expressed on a leaf mass basis (coefficient of variation, CV = 36%) than when expressed on a leaf area basis (CV = 66%), and relationships for broadleaf and needle‐leaf species converged when using the mass‐based index. These results show that much of the variation in ozone sensitivity among woody plants can be explained by interspecific variation in LMA and that large‐scale ozone impact assessment could be greatly improved by considering this well‐known and easily measured leaf trait.     

Endoreduplication in higher plants

Cell polyploidisation can be achieved by endoreduplication, which consists of one or several rounds of DNA synthesis in the absence of mitosis. As a consequence, chromosomes with 2ⁿ chromatids are produced without change in the chromosome number. Endoreduplication is the most common mode of polyploidisation in plants and can be found in many cell types, especially in those undergoing differentiation and expansion. Although accumulating data reveal that this process is developmentally regulated, it is still poorly understood in plants. At the molecular level, the increasing knowledge on plant cell cycle regulators allows the acquisition of new tools and clues to understand the basis of endoreduplication control and, in particular, the switch between cell proliferation and cell differentiation.     

Action spectra for photosynthesis in higher plants

The action and quantum yield spectra of photosynthetic CO₂ uptakeand the absorptance spectrum were determined for leaves of 33species of higher plant including 7 arbores over the wavelengthrange 344–758 nm, to interpret various curves of the spectralresponses. Almost the same curves either in the action or quantumyeild spectra were obtained for all the plants tested exceptin the ultraviolet (UV) and blue regions where the responserelative to the red maximum was significantly lower in the arboreousthan in herbaceous plants. The lower action in the UV and bluewas seen in leaves having higher absorptance in the green, anda very close correlation (r=–0.920) was found betweenthe ratio of action at 435 nm to that at 560 nm and the absorptanceat 560 nm (A560). These facts proved that the variation of actionspectra in the range from the UV to the green depended largelyon the differences in absorptance of leaves in the green, anda curve with a pronounced second peak in the blue could be obtainedwhen the A560 was less than about 0.6. (Received October 3, 1975; )     

Rhodanese in higher plants

Rhodanese activity was detected in crude leaf extracts of 12 randomly selected plant species consisting of 9 non-cyanophoric and 3 cyanophoric species. In each case, the enzyme exhibited high activity at pH 10·4 and 55°. There appeared to be no correlation between rhodanese activity and the cyanophoric nature of the plant.     

Solar UV-B decreases decomposition in herbaceous plant litter in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina: potential role of an altered decomposer community

Tierra del Fuego, Argentina (55°S), receives increased solar ultraviolet‐B radiation (UV‐B) as a result of Antarctic stratospheric ozone depletion. We conducted a field study to examine direct and indirect effects of solar UV‐B radiation on decomposition of Gunnera magellanica, a native perennial herb, and on the native community of decomposer organisms. In general, indirect effects of UV‐B mostly occur due to changes in the chemical composition of litter, whereas direct effects during decomposition result from changes in decomposer organisms and/or differences in the photochemical breakdown of litter. We designed a full‐factorial experiment using senescent leaves that had received either near‐ambient or attenuated UV‐B during growth. The leaves were distributed in litterbags and allowed to decompose under near‐ambient or reduced solar UV‐B during the growing season. We evaluated initial litter quality, mass loss, and nutrient release of decomposing litter, and microbial colonization of both initial litter and decomposed litter. We found that litter that decomposed under near‐ambient UV‐B had significantly less mass loss than litter that decomposed under reduced UV‐B. The UV‐B conditions received by plants during growth, which did not affect mass loss and nutrient composition of litter, affected fungal species composition but in different ways throughout the decomposition period. Before the decomposition trial, Beauveria bassiana and Penicillium frequentans were higher under reduced UV‐B, whereas Cladosporium herbarum and pigmented bacteria were more common under the near‐ambient compared to the reduced UV‐B treatment. After the decomposition period, leaves that had grown under reduced UV‐B showed higher frequency of Penicillium thomii and lower frequency of Trichoderma polysporum than leaves that had grown under near‐ambient conditions. The UV‐B condition received during decomposition also affected fungal colonization, with Penicillium chrysogenum being more frequent in leaves that had decomposed under reduced UV‐B, while the other species were not affected. Our results demonstrate that, in this ecosystem, the effects of UV‐B radiation on decomposition apparently occurred mostly through changes in the fungal community, while changes in photochemical breakdown appeared to be less important.