Isozymes and differentiation

We have tried to define "isozymes" and "differentiation" because these words are often used in a too vague sense. We have noted that the physiological role of isozymes is far from being clearly understood, even for the most studied enzyme with multiple molecular forms, lactic dehydrogenase. But we have pointed out that some isozymes are specific for some adult tissues, especially liver and muscle. They constitute consequently true "markers" of differentiation. Some mechanisms of this differentiation have been made clearer by the experiments of cell hybridization. The role of isozymes in differentiation is also illustrated by the selective disappearance of isozymic markers in some pathologycal conditions, for example : cancer and muscular diseases.     

Ghrelin and cell differentiation

Ghrelin, an endogenous ligand for the growth hormone secretagogue receptor, is a gastric hormone that has been found to have a wide variety of biological functions. This review summarizes our current understanding of the effects of ghrelin on cell differentiation and tissue development, with an emphasis on the lineage determination of mesenchymal stem cells.     

Telomerase and oligodendrocyte differentiation

Myelin in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) is produced by oligodendrocytes, most of which arise from oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) during late embryonic and early postnatal development. Both external and internal cues have been implicated in regulating OPC exit from the cell cycle and differentiation into oligodendrocytes. In this study, we demonstrate that differentiation of cultured OPCs into mature oligodendrocytes is associated with lower levels of activity of telomerase, the ribonucleoprotein that synthesizes telomeric DNA at the ends of chromosomes. Differentiation is also associated with lower levels of mRNA encoding the catalytic subunit of telomerase (TERT), whereas no difference is seen in the expression of its telomeric template RNA component (TR). These data suggest a possible role for telomerase during normal growth and differentiation of oligodendrocytes that may be relevant to the mechanism of myelination in the CNS. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 49: 224–234, 2001     

Cell differentiation and malignancy

An understanding of the mechanism that controls growth and differentiation in normal cells would seem to be an essential requirement to elucidate the origin and reversibility of malignancy. For this approach I have mainly used normal and leukemic blood cells, and in most studies have used myeloid blood cells as a model system. Our development of systems for the in vitro cloning and clonal differentiation of normal blood cells made it possible to study the controls that regulate growth (multiplication) and differentiation of these normal cells and the changes in these controls in leukemia. Experiments with normal blood cell precursors have shown that normal cells require different proteins to induce growth and differentiation. We have also shown that in normal myeloid precursors, growth-inducing protein induces both growth and production of differentiation-inducing protein so this ensures the coupling between growth and differentiation that occurs in normal development. The origin of malignancy involves uncoupling of growth and differentiation. This can be produced by changes from inducible to constitutive expression of specific genes that result in asynchrony to the coordination required for the normal developmental program. Normal myeloid precursors require an external source of growth-inducing protein for growth, and we have identified different types of leukemic cells. Some no longer require and other constitutively produce their own growth-inducing protein. But addition of the normal differentiation-inducing protein to these malignant cells still induces their normal differentiation, and the mature cells are then no longer malignant. Genetic changes that produce blocks in the ability to be induced to differentiate by the normal inducer occur in the evolution of leukemia. But even these cells can be induced to differentiate by other compounds, including low doses of compounds now being used in cancer therapy, that induce the differentiation program by other pathways. This differentiation of leukemic cells has been obtained in vitro and in vivo, and our in vivo results indicate that this may be a useful approach to therapy. In some tumours, such as sarcomas, reversion from a malignant to a non-malignant phenotype can be a result of chromosome changes that suppress malignancy. But in myeloid leukemia, the stopping of growth in mature cells by induction of differentiation bypasses the genetic changes that produce the malignant phenotype. These conclusions can also be applied to other types of normal and malignant cells.     

Brca1 and differentiation

Breast cancer is one of the most frequent malignancies affecting women. The human breast cancer gene 1 (BRCA1) gene is mutated in a distinct proportion of hereditary breast and ovarian cancers. Tumourigenesis in individuals with germline BRCA1 mutations requires somatic inactivation of the remaining wild-type allelle. Although, this evidence supports a role for BRCA1 as a tumour suppressor, the mechanisms through which its loss leads to tumourigenesis remain to be determined. Neither the expression pattern nor the described functions of human BRCA1 and murine breast cancer gene 1 (Brca1) can explain the specific association of mutations in this gene with the development of breast and ovarian cancer. Investigation of the role of Brca1 in normal cell differentiation processes might provide the basis to understand the tissue-restricted properties.     

Cell cycle and differentiation

The development of multicellular organisms relies on the temporal and spatial control of cell proliferation and cell growth. The relationship between cell-cycle progression and development is complex and characterized by mutual dependencies. On the level of the individual cell, this interrelationship has implications for pattern formation and cell morphogenesis. On a supercellular level, this interrelationship affects meristem function and organ growth. Often, developmental signals not only direct cell-cycle progression but also set the frame for cell-cycle regulation by determining cell-type-specific cell-cycle modes. In other cases, however, cell-cycle progression appears to be required for the further differentiation of some cell types. There are also examples in which cell cycle and differentiation seem to be controlled at the same level and progress rather independently from each other or are linked by the same regulator or pathway. Furthermore, different relationships between cell cycle and differentiation can be combined in a succession of events during development, leading to complex developmental programs.     

Transglutaminase and neuronal differentiation

Summary During mouse brain maturation cellular transglutaminase specific activity increases 2.5 fold from day 3 to adulthood. A more pronounced increase is seen during morphological differentiation of mouse neuroblastoma cells, where serum withdrawal induces neurite outgrowth concomitant with a 10 fold increase in transglutaminase specific activity. In contrast, non-dividing neuroblastoma cells lacking neurites show only a 1.5 fold increase in enzyme specific activity. Transglutaminase activity does not reach maximal levels until extensive neurite formation has occurred. More than 80% of the transglutaminase activity is found in the soluble component of brain and neuroblastoma homogenates. Using [³H]-putrescine as the acyl acceptor, endogenous acyl donor substrates in the neuroblastoma cells included proteins that comigrated on SDS-PAGE with tubulin and actin; however, very high molecular weight crosslinked material is the major reaction product in vitro. When purified brain tubulin, microtubule associated proteins and microtubules were compared as exogenous substrates, only the polymeric microtubules were a good acyl donor substrate. Furthermore, preincubation of purified tubulin with transglutaminase and putrescine stimulated both the rate and extent of microtubule assembly. These findings suggest that transglutaminase may mediate covalent cross-linking of microtubules to other cellular components, or the post-translational modification of tubulin by the formation of -glutamylamines.     

Induction, differentiation and oncogenesis

Eukaroytic cytodifferentiation usually leads to stable end-states. However, evidence on embryonic induction in amphibia supports the view that the initial stages of cellular maturation following induction of differentiation are comparatively labile, stability being a property acquired during maturation.Early developing cells may therefore retain the capacity for reversion to their previous, less developed, condition and a proportion of any group of induced cells may do so. Possible implications of such a phenomenon are explored, using two kinetic models of reversion. It is concluded that reversion is a possible mechanism in leukaemogenesis and other forms of oncogenesis.     

脂肪细胞的分化及调控

越来越多的研究结果表明脂肪组织不仅仅是被动的能量储存器官 ,而且是能够分泌多种激素类物质的内分泌器官 ;脂肪细胞分化及其调控失常与人类多种疾病如肥胖症、糖尿病、脂肪肝、高脂血症及乳腺癌等密切相关。对脂肪细胞分化机制及其调控的研究 ,不但对于探讨上述重大生命和疾病过程具有重要理论意义 ,而且对于上述疾病的预防与治疗 ,特别是对于在细胞和分子水平上筛选针对上述疾病的药物 ,也具有实际意义。本文从脂肪细胞的起源、前脂肪细胞向脂肪细胞的分化过程、脂肪细胞分化的调控 ,以及对脂肪细胞分化研究应注意的问题等进行了综述 ,以期对脂肪细胞分化及其调控进行全面总结