The susceptibility of Proteus mirabilis strains isolated from white stork (Ciconia ciconia)

Proteus sp. rods are ubiquitous bacteria, widespread in the environment and classified also as opportunistic human pathogens. The aim of our study was to evaluate susceptibility of Proteus mirabilis strains isolated from white stork (Ciconia ciconia) regarding as his natural bacterial flora, compare and discuss their results with data obtained from scientific literature for clinical strains of the same species. Susceptibility of 59 P. mirabilis strains was estimated for 27 antimicrobials using disc-diffusion method and the ability to produce extended spectrum beta-lactamases was evaluated by double disc synergy test. Environmental P. mirabilis strains isolated from white stork were assessed as more susceptible to most of the examined antimicrobials and production of extended spectrum beta-lactamases was not noted amongst them.     

Arrival date, age and breeding success in white stork Ciconia ciconia

Early arrival to breeding grounds is a life history trait in birds that can result in fitness benefits. We studied the relationship between arrival date and breeding success of individuals in a central Iberian population of white stork Ciconia ciconia , between 1999 and 2005, and the ways in which other potential factors, such as age or sex, affect this relationship. Our results showed that age was the factor most closely related to arrival date and breeding success. Older individuals returned earlier to the breeding grounds, achieved larger clutch sizes and produced more chicks than younger birds. After controlling statistically for age effect, breeding probability (laid eggs or not) and laying date were still significantly explained by arrival date. A higher probability of failure to reproduce (no eggs laid) was found in birds arriving later than in those arriving early. However, clutch size and nestling success (number of nestlings in the nest 40 days after hatching) were not correlated with arrival date. Food availability in the study area throughout the breeding cycle, due to a nearby rubbish dump, could be the factor mitigating differences in clutch size and nestling success related to individual arrival date.     

Hematology and blood chemistry of chicks of white and black storks (Ciconia ciconia and Ciconia nigra)

1. The hematology and blood chemistry of 15-68-day-old chicks have been studied. 2. Red cell numbers (1,900,000/mm3), hemoglobin content (11.5 g/dl) and hematocrit (37.5) were similar in both species of storks. 3. Total numbers of leucocytes (63,000/mm3) were similar in both species, whilst differential leucocyte counts were not. 4. Higher levels of plasma protein, GOT and cholesterol in HDL were found in white storks when compared with black storks but not differences were detected in plasma levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, urea, uric acid, GPT and alkaline phosphatase.     

Breeding dispersal directions in the white stork (Ciconia ciconia) are affected by spring migration routes

We examined breeding dispersal directions in the white stork (Ciconia ciconia), a migratory bird breeding in large parts of Europe. We asked whether and how the direction of the major spring/autumn migration route (from south-east to north-west and vice versa) affects breeding dispersal directions. Breeding dispersal directions were clearly nonrandomly distributed and were influenced by the major spring migration direction, leading to a bias toward south-eastward and north-westward breeding dispersal.     

Melatonin and thyroxine response to pollution in white stork nestlings (Ciconia ciconia): aspects of rhythmicity and age

There is growing evidence that ubiquitous environmental contaminants may interfere with vertebrate endocrine systems. The selected endocrine biomarkers are used to indicate the condition of free-ranging populations of wildlife, including avian species. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of environment quality on serum thyroxine (T4) and melatonin (Mel) in white stork nestlings (Ciconia ciconia) living in different locations: small villages in natural areas surrounded by forests and crop fields, near the city and near the copper smelter. We extended our analyses to examine the hormones' day-night changes in conjunction with chicks' age. Total serum T4 and Mel was measured by RIA. T4 level, as a decisive measure of thyroid hormone productivity, was significantly lower in the nestlings exposed to pollutants from the copper smelter. Mel, as a well-known scavenger of free radicals, was elevated in the nestlings in the area near the copper smelter. This study indicates that alteration in T4 and Mel levels could be a useful marker of exposure of nestling wild storks to different toxic substances in field studies. Mel is postulated to be a susceptible defensive molecule as a protective mechanism for organisms.     

Community structure and dispersal of mites (Acari, Mesostigmata) in nests of the white stork (Ciconia ciconia)

The fauna of Mesostigmata in nests of the white stork Ciconia ciconia was studied in the vicinity of Poznań (Poland). A total of 37 mite species was recovered from 11 of the 12 nests examined. The mite fauna was dominated by the family Macrochelidae. Macrocheles merdarius was the most abundant species, comprising 56% of all mites recovered. Most of the abundant mite species were associated with dung and coprophilous insects. It is likely that they were introduced into the nests by adult storks with dung as part of the nest material shortly before and after the hatching of the chicks.     

Pollution-related changes in oxidative stress and antioxidant defense profile in the blood of white stork Ciconia ciconia chicks from different regions of Poland

Changes in the lipid peroxidation and oxidatively modified protein levels as well as the antioxidant defense system in the blood of white stork (Ciconia ciconia) chicks were analyzed during their development in nests in polluted and control environments. The control, relatively pure, environment was the village of K?opot, with no industrial plants within a radius of 150 km. Blood samples were also collected in two polluted areas, including (1) the suburban village of Czarnowo, located 20 km from the city of Zielona Góra (southwestern Poland) and (2) an area near the town of G?ogów, where a large copper smelter is situated. The effects of various ecological threats from different environments tended to initiate oxidative stress and decrease total antioxidant capacity. The initiation of lipid peroxidation and increases in the levels of carbonyl derivatives of oxidative amino acids were observed in the plasma of chicks from polluted areas. Plasma catalase and the selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase activities of erythrocytes were significantly higher in chicks from polluted areas than in those from control areas. Oxidative stress and components of the antioxidant defense system, especially glutathione peroxidase activity, can be used as indicators of oxidative stress, which was found to be greater in the polluted areas (near the G?ogów copper smelter). Research into oxidative stress biomarkers can aid assessments of the conditions of birds, and points to a positive association with miscellaneous environmental loads.     

The relationship between population means and variances of reproductive success differs between local populations of white stork (Ciconia ciconia)

We studied the size and productivity of white stork (Ciconia ciconia) populations in eight study sites in Poland. The number of nesting pairs and the average number of chicks fledged per pair fluctuated over time, and the studied populations differed in the variance of both breeding success and number of breeding pairs. The variance of breeding success (both for the mean number of chicks and the proportion of successful nests) and the variance of the number of breeding pairs was not correlated with the extent of stable habitats (pastures, meadows, wetlands), other habitats (farmland), or with local population trends over time. We found a non-linear symmetrical relationship between annual mean reproductive success and its variance but only when considered as the proportion of successful nests (i.e., when individual nests are coded as a binary value: 0, no success; 1, success). No such relationship existed when success was expressed as the number of fledged chicks. Although a positive significant correlation occurred between fledgling numbers (discrete data) and the proportion of successful nests (binary data), we believe that the use of only binary data will be inadequate in more detailed analyses, such as population viability analysis.     

Timing of arrival at breeding grounds determines spatial patterns of productivity within the population of white stork (Ciconia ciconia)

Early arrival at breeding grounds have important fitness consequences for migratory birds, both at individual and population level. The aim of this study was to investigate how the timing of arrival at the breeding territories affects the spatial patterns of reproductive success within a population of white storks (Ciconia ciconia). Data were gathered annually for ca. 200 pairs of storks breeding in central Poland between 1994 and 2011. Geostatistical analysis of data indicated that in years of delayed arrival of the population (measured by the first quartile arrival date), the reproductive output of storks was negatively autocorrelated, which indicated that there was a tendency for pairs of high breeding success to neighbour with pairs of low success. By contrast, in years when first storks returned in early dates to the breeding grounds, their reproductive success did not show any kind of spatial autocorrelation. These results suggest that delayed return of the first-arriving storks of the population may increase intensity of intra-specific competition to the level at which high-quality breeding pairs monopolize most of available resources at the expense of neighbouring low-quality pairs, which have lower reproductive success as a consequence. Such hypothesis was further supported with the analysis of nesting densities, showing that the late-arriving breeding pairs incurred greater fitness costs (or derived lower fitness benefits) while breeding in high densities comparatively to the early-arriving conspecifics.     

Developmental exposure to a toxic spill compromises long-term reproductive performance in a wild, long-lived bird: the white stork (Ciconia ciconia)

Background/Objective

Exposure to environmental contaminants may result in reduced reproductive success and long-lasting population declines in vertebrates. Emerging data from laboratory studies on model species suggest that certain life-stages, such as development, should be of special concern. However, detailed investigations of long-term consequences of developmental exposure to environmental chemicals on breeding performance are currently lacking in wild populations of long-lived vertebrates. Here, we studied how the developmental exposure to a mine spill (Aznalcóllar, SW Spain, April 1998) may affect fitness under natural conditions in a long-lived bird, the White Stork (Ciconia ciconia).

Methodology

The reproductive performance of individually-banded storks that were or not developmentally exposed to the spill (i.e. hatched before or after the spill) was compared when these individuals were simultaneously breeding during the seven years after the spill occurred (1999–2005).

Principal Findings

Female storks developmentally exposed to the spill experienced a premature breeding senescence compared with their non-developmentally exposed counterparts, doing so after departing from an unusually higher productivity in their early reproductive life (non-developmentally exposed females: 0.5±0.33SE fledglings/year at 3-yr old vs. 1.38±0.31SE at 6–7 yr old; developmentally exposed females: 1.5±0.30SE fledglings/year at 3-yr old vs. 0.86±0.25SE at 6–7 yr old).

Conclusions/Significance

Following life-history theory, we propose that costly sub-lethal effects reported in stork nestlings after low-level exposure to the spill-derived contaminants might play an important role in shaping this pattern of reproduction, with a clear potential impact on population dynamics. Overall, our study provides evidence that environmental disasters can have long-term, multigenerational consequences on wildlife, particularly when affecting developing individuals, and warns about the risk of widespread low-level contamination in realistic scenarios.     

Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy studies on the reduction of the tongue microstructures in the white stork (Ciconia ciconia,Aves)

The structure of the tongue in the white stork (Ciconia ciconia) is observed macroscopically and under light and scanning electron microscopy. Our observations of the tongue reveal a rare terminal reduction of the size of the tongue and microstructures of the lingual mucosa among the investigations of birds published so far. The short, triangular tongue with a pointed tip is approximately 2.5 cm long in the adult and is situated in the caudal part of the oral cavity close to the laryngeal prominence. On the dorsal surface of the tongue, no typical mucosa microstructures like lingual papillae, median groove or lingual prominence are observed. The main structure of the tongue is composed of rostral part of hyoid apparatus, that is, entoglossal cartilage connects with basihyoid. Very thin mucosa is composed of fibrous connective tissue covered with orthokeratinized epithelium. No lingual glands and muscles are observed in the lamina propria of mucosa. Even though the triangular shape of the tongue in the white stork is typical for birds, the inner structure of the reduced organ is composed only of flat cartilagineous entoglossum of hyoid apparatus. During feeding behaviour of the white stork, the food transportation in oral cavity called cranio‐inertial transport is undoubtedly affected by structural reduction of the tongue.     

Are non-migrant white storks (Ciconia ciconia) able to survive a cold-induced fast?

Northwestern European populations of White Storks (Ciconia ciconia) have been restored by settling young birds which, after having been maintained captive for 3 years, do not migrate when released. Since they are still supplied with food, the question we address here is how settled White Storks would cope with a fast resulting from a cold spell if food were no longer available. We therefore measured daily body mass loss, nitrogen excretion and daily energy expenditure under natural photoperiod and climatic conditions in six captive White Storks exposed to 5 days of food deprivation during winter. Daily ambient temperature ranged between -10 and 17 degrees C. After an initial decrease in both daily body mass loss and nitrogen excretion during the first day of fasting, these two parameters stabilized at low values. Lipids were the main fuel energy source (91%) and body proteins accounted for the remainder (9%). The rate of CO(2) production, measured with the doubly labeled water method, decreased significantly (P<0.001) during fasting when compared to the ad libitum value. Our data show that the metabolic adjustments of White Storks facing starvation are similar to those found in birds well-adapted to long-term fasting. From the determination of lipid and protein stores and of lipid and protein depletion rates, we conclude that White Storks would be able to survive at least during 4 weeks, a period of time twice as long as the duration of cold spells usually occurring in the Alsace region.     

Uphill shifts in the distribution of the white stork Ciconia ciconia in southern Poland: the importance of nest quality

The aim of this paper is to explain the altitudinal changes that have occurred during the 20th century to the white stork distribution in the Podhale region of the uplands of the Tatra mountains, southern Poland. We analysed both historical data from the white stork censuses and detailed yearly records from 1974 to 2003 on population size, distribution and breeding success. A white stork nest was first recorded at Podhale in 1931 and numbers increased to seven nests in 1933, all located below 650 m altitude. During the 30‐years, 1974–2003, both the maximum and upper‐quartile altitudes of nests increased significantly. In 1974 the highest nest was at an altitude of 770 m, and the maximum reached 890 m in 1999. In the same period, the breeding population increased significantly. The minimum and lower‐quartile altitudes of nests decreased significantly following initial occupation of suitable lower altitude sites before uphill expansion. We noted the positive association between nest occupancy over the study period and breeding performance. As a result, long‐occupied nests contributed most of the young produced in the population and chicks from these nests probably colonized new areas. We believe this is the first well‐documented evidence of, and mechanism for, a particular bird species to ascend to higher elevations and that the altitudinal shifts reported for butterflies, plants and whole biomes can be detected in birds as well.     

Hemoglobin of the adult white stork (Ciconia ciconia, ciconiiformes). The primary structure of alpha A- and beta-chains from the only present hemoglobin component

The hemolysate obtained from erythrocytes of the adult White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) contains only one hemoglobin component, identified to be HbA. The complete primary structures of alpha A- and beta-chains are presented. The minor hemoglobin component HbD with alpha D-chains usually present in adult avian species was not detected by the White Stork. The sequence was determined by automatic Edman degradation of tryptic peptides and in the case of beta-chains additionally of the C-terminal peptide obtained by chemical cleavage at the Asp-Pro bond. Homologous comparison with the Greylag Goose (Anser anser) hemoglobin showed that the alpha A-chains differ by 23 amino-acid exchanges, the beta-chains by 17. Four of the substitutions in the alpha A-chains are in the alpha 1 beta 1-contact points, one in the alpha 1 beta 2-contacts and one in the amino acids near the heme. The amino-acid substitutions of the White Stork hemoglobin as compared to the other avian hemoglobins are discussed. We suggest that alpha D-chain is persistence of an embryonic gene.     

New is not always better: low breeding success and different occupancy patterns in newly built nests of a long-lived species,the white stork Ciconia ciconia

Capsule An increase in new nest building in a white stork population revealed that they were built further from human settlement and on non-typical structures; such nests had lower breeding success resulting from later breeding.

Aim To determine why some birds build new nests rather than occupy older ones, and how new nests affect breeding performance compared to old nests, in a long-lived bird, the white stork.

Methods We compared new nest construction in 2010 with a long-term data set on white stork in Western Poland from 1974 to 2009. For data from 2010, we analysed nest location and breeding biology in detail.

Results Since 1974, the proportion of new build nests was ca. 1.6%; in 2010 this was 13.2%. Pairs in new nests bred later than pairs in old, and had smaller clutches and lower breeding success. New nests were located further from settlements and tended to be built on different structures. A significantly lower proportion of new nests were re-occupied in subsequent years.

Conclusions Pairs may build new nests to gain experience in nest building, cooperation and foraging for subsequent seasons or because of competitive pressure when the environment is close to carrying capacity. Breeding success can be initially very low.     

Astaxanthin is the major carotenoid in tissues of white storks (Ciconia ciconia) feeding on introduced crayfish (Procambarus clarkii)

We studied the carotenoid pigments in plasma, skin and body fat of white storks (Ciconia ciconia) from a colony in Spain feeding mainly on the recently introduced red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). In control colonies, where crayfish was absent, plasma was collected for comparison. Our objective was to determine whether the astaxanthin contained in the crayfish reached the blood, accumulated in fat, and finally was deposited in the red-colored bill and legs. If that was true, the visual cues provided by those tegumentary areas would be altered, with potential behavioral consequences. Plasma carotenoids were directly extracted with acetone, whereas skin and fat samples needed harsher conditions, i.e. grinding, sonication and extraction with diethyl ether. The extracts were analyzed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and UV/Vis spectroscopy. In crayfish-eating storks, astaxanthin was confirmed to be the dominant pigment in all analyzed tissues. This red pigment was absorbed unchanged in the gut, and was responsible for the red color of plasma and the abnormal orange pigmentation of the feather-covered skin. It was also present in large quantities in the exposed bill and tarsi, which are typically red-colored in the stork. Control storks with no crayfish in the diet only presented lutein in their plasma.