Morphometry of Macaca mulatta forelimb. II. Fiber-type composition in shoulder and elbow muscles

The present study examined the fiber-type proportions of 22 muscles spanning the shoulder and/or elbow joints of three Macaca mulatta. Fibers were classified as one of three types: fast-glycolytic (FG), fast-oxidative-glycolytic (FOG), or slow-oxidative (SO). In most muscles, the FG fibers predominated, but proportions ranged from 25-67% in different muscles. SO fibers were less abundant except in a few deep, small muscles where they comprised as much as 56% of the fibers. Cross-sectional area (CSA) of the three fiber types was measured in six different muscles. FG fibers tended to be the largest, whereas SO fibers were the smallest. While fiber-type size was not always consistent between muscles, the relative size of FG fibers was generally larger than FOG and SO fibers within the same muscle. When fiber CSA was taken into consideration, FG fibers were found to comprise over 50% of the muscle's CSA in almost all muscles.     

Directional asymmetry in the forelimb of Macaca mulatta

Asymmetry was investigated in the forelimbs of 150 rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) skeletons using measurements of right and left humerii, radii, ulnae, second metacarpals, and femora. Seven of the ten forelimb dimensions were larger on the right than on the left side. Paired t-tests revealed that the mean of the right side was significantly larger than that for the left for two measurements of the ulna and two of the humerus. No measurement was significantly larger on the left than on the right side. These results indicate a small but significant asymmetry in the forelimb bones of rhesus monkeys and, as is the case for humans, the direction of asymmetry favors the right side. Our findings are consistent with an interpretation of hypertrophy of certain muscles and opens the question of whether rhesus monkeys preferentially use their right forelimbs for manipulative tasks that require manual dexterity, as is the case for humans. These forelimb skeletal asymmetries are discussed in light of the recent literature on cortical asymmetry and handedness in nonhuman primates.     

Biochemical genetics of macaques. I. 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase polymorphisms in Macaca mulatta and Macaca speciosa

Starch gel electrophoresis of erythrocytes from 1812 Macaca mulatta has unequivocally demonstrated that the 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) isozymes are controlled by two autosomal codominant alleles. Limited data on erythrocytes from 89 Macaca speciosa were also consistent with autosomal codominance.This work was supported in part by NIH Grants HD 07835 (WHS) and RR-00167 (Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center) and by the Research Committee of the UW Graduate School (Project No. 170207).Paper No. 2146 of the Laboratory of Genetics, and Publication No. 16-045 of The Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center.     

Backward and forward masking in Macaca mulatta.

8 highly trained rhesus monkeys were examined on both backward and forward masking to determine the feasility of studying masking in unrestrained monkeys and of studying perceptual phenomenon without the confounding of linguistic variables. It was found that monkeys could respond well under the given conditions. The data indicated a more pronounced effect of the masking stimulus on backward masking than on forward masking.     

Adjustments to McConville et al. and Young et al. body segment inertial parameters

Body segment inertial parameters (BSIPs) are important data in biomechanics. They are usually estimated from predictive equations reported in the literature. However, most of the predictive equations are ambiguously applicable in the conventional 3D segment coordinate systems (SCSs). Also, the predictive equations reported in the literature all include two assumptions: the centre of mass and the proximal and distal endpoints are assumed to be aligned, and the inertia tensor is assumed to be principal in the segment axes. These predictive equations, restraining both position of the centre of mass and orientation of the principal axes of inertia, become restrictive when computing 3D inverse dynamics, when analyzing the influence of BSIP estimations on joint forces and moments and when evaluating personalized 3D BSIPs obtained from medical imaging. In the current study, the extensive data from McConville et al. (1980. Anthropometric relationships of body and body segment moments of inertia. AFAMRL-TR-80-119, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio) and from Young et al. (1983. Anthropometric and mass distribution characteristics of the adults female. Technical Report AFAMRL-TR-80-119, FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute, Oklaoma City, Oklaoma) are adjusted in order to correspond to joint centres and to conventional segment axes. In this way, scaling equations are obtained for both males and females that provide BSIPs which are directly applicable in the conventional SCSs and do not restrain the position of the centre of mass and the orientation of the principal axes. These adjusted scaling equations may be useful for researchers who wish to use appropriate 3D BSIPs for posture and movement analysis.     

Photic and pentylenetetrazol-induced seizure susceptibility in Macaca mulatta.

Ninety-five out of 100 male Macaca mulatta of varying ages from a restricted habitat in N. India showed no abnormal seizure susceptibility or EEG response to photic stimulation and no electro-clinical features of epilepsy after pentylenetetrazol, 40 mg/kg sc.c. Autopsy studies on the remaining five monkeys with increased seizure proneness revealed depressed skull fractures with cortical trauma in four and a neoplasm in one. Presumably, these factors were responsible for the lowered seizure susceptibility to photic stimulation and pentylenetetrazol activation.     

Food-associated calls in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): I. Socioecological factors

Upon discovering food, free-living rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)on the island of Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico, produce a complexof vocal signals consisting of five acoustically distinguishablecalls. This report examines the socioecological factors elicitingcall production and the information protentially conveyed toothers. The primary contexts for three vocalizations ("warbles," "harmonicarches, " and "chirps") are encounters with rareand highly preferred foods (e.g., coconut). Two other vocalizations("coos" and "grunts") are produced both in food (primarily provisionedchow) and in nonfood contexts, such as during mother-infantseparation and grooming interactions. Grunts given upon encounteringfood are acoustically distinct from those given in nonfood contexts.In contrast, coos associated with food are statistically indistinguishablefrom coos given in other contexts. When conspecitics hear thesefood-associated calls, they typically approach the caller. Coosare less likely to lead to approach than other food-associatedcalls, Results from all-day follows on adult males and adultfemales reveal that changes in hunger level influence call ratebut not call type; the different call types are produced throughoutthe day. We infer that the structure of food-associated callsprovides information about the quality of the food discovered,whereas call rate conveys information about the relative hungerlevel of the caller. In this population, adult males give fewerfood-associated calls than adult females. In addition, femaleswithin large matrilines call more than females within smallermatrilines, and males who are resident in a group are more vocalthan peripheral males.     

Placental transfer of phenylalanine in Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis

We investigated placental transport mechanisms of phenylalanine in Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis. In the beginning of the third trimester we administered i.v. phenylalanine and p-chlorophenylalanine to pregnant animals. Initial higher phenylalanine concentrations were observed followed by a rapid decrease in both rhesus mothers and fetuses when compared with phenylalanine levels in fascicularis mothers and fetuses. In general, however, placental transfer mechanisms of phenylalanine did not differ significantly between the two species.     

Development and size of the teeth of Macaca mulatta.

A cross-sectional sample of 151 skulls from Macaca mulatta of known age and similar rearing in U.S. Primate Centers was analyzed to determine age-related "norms" of stages of development and size of teeth. The stages of development from the follicle of a deciduous incisor in the fetus to completion of the root with apex closed of the permanent third molar were related to age. The age range observed for eruption of each tooth was noted and related to its stage of development. The crown of each erupted tooth was found to be completely developed, but growth of its root continued for a longer, indeterminate period. When a deciduous tooth was exfoliated, the crown of the permanent successor was found to be completed and root growth had begun. Measurements of both mesiodistal and faciolingual diameters and of crown length of the teeth in situ and of total length and root length on roentgenograms were examined for sexual dimorphism. The faciolingual diameter of the deciduous mandibular second incisor and of both second molars showed the greatest sexual dimorphism among both diameters of all deciduous teeth. The mesiodistal and faciolingual diameters of the mandibular premolars were found to be the best dimensions in discriminant functions for identifying sex in the absence of permanent canines.     

Estimation of gestational and skeletal age in Macaca mulatta.

Results of qualitative and quantitative studies of prenatal skeletal development in Macaca mulatta are presented. Longitudinal radiographic observations were carried out on 20 monkeys of known gestational age, beginning on 120 days of gestation until the neonatal stage of skeletal development. These studies were based on multiple uterotomies on each pregnant female. The technique described provides accurate data on prenatal bone ossification, and permits an accurate estimation of fetal age in pregnant rhesus monkeys with unknown conception dates.     

恒河猴与食蟹猴微卫星DNA多态性的比较分析

目的分析恒河猴和食蟹猴群体间的遗传多样性,确立一种对恒河猴和食蟹猴种群个体的遗传鉴别方法。方法利用聚合酶链反应（PCR）扩增技术采用15个多态性微卫星DNA位点对50只恒河猴和50只食蟹猴个体进行了DNA多态性的分析,对比两群体间等位基因数目差异。结果筛选的15个具有显著多态性的微卫星DNA位点对恒河猴和食蟹猴种群可以进行DNA多态性分析,其等位基因数目均在7个以上,且两群体间有11个位点的等位基因数存在一定的差异。结论利用这些多态性微卫星DNA位点建立一种有效鉴别恒河猴和食蟹猴种群遗传背景的方法具有一定的可行性。     

Body weight: its relation to tissue composition, segment distribution, and motor function. II. Development of Macaca mulatta.

The relative composition of skin, muscle, and bone and their distribution patterns throughout the body are given for a series of Macaca mulatta from 171 days conceptual age through adulthood. In terms of percent of total body weight, the musculature of these animals doubles during the firs postnatal year whereas bone and skin decrease. Regionally, the muscles of the thighs, back extensors, truncal-forelimb and upper arms increase most markedly. The thighs double and the upper arms increase whereas the trunk, hands, feet, and tail decrease. The biomechanical implications of these changes for motor development are discussed.     

Changes in body segment inertial parameters of obese individuals with weight loss

Forward dynamic simulation of human movement has the potential to investigate the biomechanical effects of weight loss in obese individuals. However, guidelines for altering body segment inertial parameters (BSIPs) of a biomechanical model to approximate changes that occur with weight loss are currently unavailable. Therefore, the goal of this study was to quantify three-dimensional changes in BSIPs with weight loss. Nineteen Caucasian men of age 43.6+/-7.5 years (mean+/-standard deviation) were evaluated. Body mass and body mass index prior to weight loss were 102.7+/-3.6 kg and 32.6+/-3.2 kg/m2, respectively. Both before and after weight loss, magnetic resonance imaging scans were acquired along the length of the body to discriminate muscle, bone, organ, and adipose tissues. Segment masses, center of mass (COM) positions, and radii of gyration were determined from these scans using published tissue densities and established methods. A number of significant changes in BSIPs occurred with the 13.8+/-2.4% average weight loss. Mass decreased in all segments. COM position moved distally for the thigh and upper arm, superiorly for the trunk, and inferiorly for the whole body. Radius of gyration, in general, decreased in all segments. The changes in BSIPs with weight loss reported here could be used in forward dynamic simulations investigating the biomechanical implications of weight loss.     

The measurement of body segment inertial parameters using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry

Accurate body segment parameter (BSP) information is required for dynamic analyses of motion and the current methods available for obtaining these BSPs have been criticized. The purpose of this study was to determine whether dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) could accurately measure the BSPs of scanned objects and thus be used as a tool for measuring the BSPs of human subjects. Whole body mass (WBM) of 11 males was measured from a DXA scan and the values were compared to criterion scale-measured values by calculating the mean percent error. Two objects (plastic cylinder, human cadaver leg) were also scanned and DXA measurements of mass, length, centre of mass location (CM) and moment of inertia about the centre of mass (I_CM) were made using custom software. Criterion BSP measurements were then made and compared to DXA BSP values by calculating the percent error. Criterion I_CM measurements of the two objects were made using a pendulum technique and a second criterion I_CM calculation was made for the cylinder using a geometric formula. A mean percent error of −1.05% ±1.32% was found for WBM measurements of the human subjects. Errors for the cylinder and cadaver leg were under 3.2% for all BSPs except for I_CM when DXA was compared to the pendulum method (14.3% and 8.2% for cylinder and leg, respectively). The errors between DXA and the pendulum method were attributed to uncertainty in the pendulum technique (J. Biomech. 2002, in Review). I_CM error of the cylinder when DXA was compared to the geometric calculation was 2.63%. This error, combined with the low errors for all other BSPs, indicated that DXA can be used as a simple and accurate means of obtaining direct BSP information on living humans.