Judging a Dog by Its Cover: Morphology but Not Training Influences Visitor Behavior toward Kenneled Dogs at Animal Shelters

Currently, visitor behavior in companion animal shelters is not adequately explored. A sequence of experiments investigated how visitors interacted with kenneled dogs at an animal shelter and whether training dogs to not engage in undesirable behavior in their kennels would evoke more interest from shelter visitors. In a set of two experiments, two sides of an animal shelter were differentially entered into training phases in a multiple baseline design. During the training phase, dogs were trained to not engage in undesirable in-kennel behavior (i.e., to not be in the back of the kennel, to not face backwards, to not lean on kennel walls, and to not bark) through pairing of the visual presentation of the experimenters (experiment 1) and shelter visitors (experiment 2) with treats. Across both experiments, visitors attended to approximately 35% of kenneled dogs and only spent an average of 15 s looking at individual dogs. We found that whereas training was effective in decreasing undesirable behavior in dogs (experiment 1: U = 4.83, p < 0.0001; experiment 2: U = 4.01, p = 0.0001), only morphology influenced visitor behavior. In experiment 1, morphologically preferred dogs (i.e., puppies, long-coated dogs, small dogs, and certain breeds) had a 1.3 times higher frequency of visits to their kennel (F_{(1, 248)} = 5.93, p < 0.05), and in experiment 2, these dogs had a 9 times higher frequency of being taken out of their kennel for further inspection (F_{(1, 69)} = 4.66, p < 0.05), compared to other dogs. One reason for a lack of effect of training may be the relatively small number of visitors observed (n = 115 across both experiments). An alternative reason may be that shelter visitors pay more attention to the morphology rather than the lack of undesirable behavior of kenneled dogs.     

Behavior and cortisol levels of dogs in a public animal shelter, and an exploration of the ability of these measures to predict problem behavior after adoption

Behavior and plasma cortisol levels were examined in puppies and juvenile/adult dogs admitted to a public animal shelter. A behavioral test was developed to assess the responses of the dogs to novel or threatening conditions. Factor analysis of the behavioral responses of 166 dogs on day 3 in the shelter yielded six factors (locomotor activity, flight, sociability, timidity, solicitation, and wariness) that accounted for 68% of the total variance. Among those dogs remaining in the shelter for 9 days, plasma cortisol levels declined from day 2 to 9. Cortisol levels were weakly related to factor scores. In order to explore the relation of measures in the shelter to later behavior, questionnaires assessing problem behaviors were mailed to new owners of dogs 2 weeks and 6 months following adoption. Among puppies, wariness scores were negatively correlated with behavior problems at 2 weeks and cortisol levels were negatively correlated with behavior problems at 6 months. These results suggest how measures of behavior and endocrine activity obtained in shelters might prove useful for screening dogs for adoption or targeting dogs for behavioral intervention.     

In-Kennel Behavior Predicts Length of Stay in Shelter Dogs

Previous empirical evaluations of training programs aimed at improving dog adoption rates assume that dogs exhibiting certain behaviors are more adoptable. However, no systematic data are available to indicate that the spontaneous behavior of shelter dogs has an effect on adopter preference. The aim of the present study was to determine whether any behaviors that dogs exhibit spontaneously in the presence of potential adopters were associated with the dogs'' length of stay in the shelter. A sample of 289 dogs was videotaped for 1 min daily throughout their stay at a county shelter. To account for differences in adopter behavior, experimenters varied from solitary passive observers to pairs of interactive observers. Dogs behaved more attentively to active observers. To account for adopter preference for morphology, dogs were divided into “morphologically preferred” and “non-preferred” groups. Morphologically preferred dogs were small, long coated, ratters, herders, and lap dogs. No theoretically significant differences in behavior were observed between the two different dog morphologies. When accounting for morphological preference, three behaviors were found to have a significant effect on length of stay in all dogs: leaning or rubbing on the enclosure wall (increased median length of stay by 30 days), facing away from the front of the enclosure (increased by 15 days), and standing (increased by 7 days). When combinations of behaviors were assessed, back and forth motion was found to predict a longer stay (increased by 24 days). No consistent behavioral changes were observed due to time spent at the shelter. These findings will allow shelters to focus behavioral modification efforts only on behaviors likely to influence adopters'' choices.     

Domestic Dogs as Facilitators in Social Interaction: An Evaluation of Helping and Courtship Behaviors

ABSTRACT

Previous studies have suggested that dogs facilitate social interaction between humans. Furthermore, the nature of social interaction is limited to nonverbal behavior such as smiling or gazing or to commonplace conversations. Four studies were carried out in field settings in order to explore if dogs can facilitate closer relationships. In the first experiment, a male confederate (accompanied or not by a dog) solicited people for money in the street. The second experiment was the same except that a female confederate was used. In a third experiment, a male confederate (with or without a dog) accidentally dropped some coins on the ground, to see if people would help him pick them up. In the fourth experiment, a male confederate (with or without a dog) solicited young women in the street for their phone numbers. Results show that the presence of the dog was associated with a higher rate of helping behavior (experiments 1, 2, 3) and higher compliance with the request of the confederate (experiment 4). The influence of a domestic dog as a facilitator to create affiliation and relations in social interaction is discussed.     

What Do Current and Potential Australian Dog Owners Believe about Shelter Practices and Shelter Dogs?

ABSTRACT

Many displaced dogs are unable to find new homes in developed countries, including Australia, each year, even though demand for dogs in general remains high. Understanding community attitudes towards shelter dogs and beliefs about common shelter practices, particularly behavioral assessments conducted by shelters, may help shed light on this issue. To investigate what current and potential dog owners think about shelter dogs, we used an internet-based survey to probe the beliefs and attitudes of 1647 self-selected adult participants, using the online Public Attitudes towards Animal Welfare Shelter-Dogs (PAAWS-D) Survey. Over 80% of the sample indicated they would be likely or very likely to obtain a future pet dog from an animal shelter or rescue organization. Nonetheless, one-third of the participants believed that adult shelter dogs often have behavioral problems. Most participants were aware of routine shelter procedures, such as health and behavioral checks, and the consequences of a dog failing these. Moreover, most participants considered the assessment of shelter dog behavior, using scientific methods, for adoption suitability important. These findings may be used to inform strategies to increase the number of shelter dogs adopted, by clarifying the content of tests used to assess adoption suitability. This could be complemented by daily training and rehabilitation programs to improve shelter dog behavior, increase adoptability, and enhance public perceptions of shelter dogs.     

The facilitation of social interactions by domestic dogs

Abstract

Research suggests that dogs can facilitate social interactions, which, in turn, may promote psychological health. This study explored the ability of dogs to facilitate social responses relative to other accompaniments and investigated whether the social catalysis effect is generic or influenced by the appearance of the dog. The behavior of 1800 pedestrians approaching a female experimenter was recorded as a function of the presence of three dogs (Labrador Retriever pup, Labrador adult, Rottweiler adult) and two neutral stimuli (teddy bear, potted plant). The behavior of pedestrians approaching the woman whenever she was alone (control) was also explored. Information was collected on the passers-by’ gender, number of people in the party, type of acknowledgement elicited and length of conversations. More people ignored the experimenter whenever she was alone or with the teddy or plant, than whenever she was walking a dog. The Rottweiler resulted in more nonresponses than the puppy or adult Labrador, who in turn elicited more smiles and verbal responses. Females, and those alone, elicited more smiles and conversations than males, or those in pairs. It is concluded that dogs can facilitate social interactions between adults better than other accompaniments; however, the social catalysis effect is not generic, but dog specific.     

Effects of exogenous serotonin on a motor behavior and shelter competition in juvenile lobsters (Homarus americanus)

Three experiments were conducted to determine (1) the pharmacodynamics of 5-hydroxytryptamine in juvenile lobsters; (2) the effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine, using a range of dosages, on a motor behavior used to escape an aversive situation; and (3) the effect of doses that did and did not inhibit this motor behavior on measures of dominance and shelter competition. The fate of 5-hydroxytryptamine in hemolymph over a 60-min post-injection period showed that the concentration fell rapidly to a low plateau that was maintained for at least 1 h. Low doses of 5-hydroxytryptamine did not affect locomotor behavior, but higher doses inhibited it. Dominance and subsequent possession of a shelter were unaffected by a low dose of 5-hydroxytryptamine but a higher dose that inhibited locomotion resulted in lobsters that lost fights and did not secure or retain possession of the shelter. In the context of dominance and shelter competition, we were unable to demonstrate any advantage of the low dose of exogenous 5-hydroxytryptamine and a severe disadvantage with the higher dose. Previous reports of transient increases in aggression in 5-hydroxytryptamine-treated subordinate lobsters did not take into account motor inhibition as a possible critical variable in aggression. Accepted: 14 April 2000     

Adaptation to cold and predation—shelter use by invasive raccoon dogs <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nyctereutes procyonoides</Emphasis> in Białowieża Primeval Forest (Poland)

Based on radio-tracking of raccoon dogs Nyctereutes procyonoides in Białowieża Primeval Forest (E Poland) in 1997–2002, we addressed the hypothesis that pattern of shelter use by this invasive carnivore is an adaptation to both climatic conditions and predation. Raccoon dogs used various types of shelters but were invariably concealed in dense vegetation or in the shelters created by trunks, branches, or roots of fallen trees (58% of days). Burrows (mainly badger setts) and hollow trees (mainly fallen limes) were selected on 27% and 14% of days, respectively. The pattern of shelter use varied throughout the year. In crucial periods (breeding period and winter), raccoon dogs used shelter offering better protection: burrows and hollow trees (use of which increased with decreasing ambient temperature) in winter, and hollow trees and dense vegetation during breeding and raising pups. The pattern of shelter use by raccoon dogs was also strongly modified by forest structure. Raccoon dogs living in the pristine old-growth stands (with large amounts of dead wood) utilized mainly natural shelters created by fallen trees (trunks, branches, and roots) and sedge tussocks (38% and 37%, respectively). Individuals inhabiting the managed part of the Forest used mainly burrows (43%) and thicket (23%). We recorded very strong monogamous relationships between pair mates, manifested by shared resting on 84% of days per year. We conclude that hiding behavior and plasticity in shelter use is a response to high mortality due to predation and to unfavorable climatic conditions. High adaptability to various environmental conditions may be one of the factors underlying successful range expansion of raccoon dogs in Europe.     

Is There a Bias Against Stray Cats in Shelters? People's Perception of Shelter Cats and How It Influences Adoption Time

The determination of adoptability is a fundamental issue facing shelters wishing to rehome cats. Many shelters in the United States cannot keep a cat indefinitely and increased time in the shelter environment may lead to reduced animal welfare due to chronic stress or euthanasia. In a series of studies, we examined whether entry type (whether a cat came to the shelter as an owner-surrendered or stray) as well as a cat's perceived social behavior influenced adoption times and people's ratings of adoptability. In study 1, we used archival data from 1,089 cats in a Midwest shelter and found that owner-surrendered cats were adopted significantly sooner than stray cats. In study 2, we further explored the difference between owner-surrendered and stray cats by measuring the social behavior of 56 shelter cats and their time before adoption. Similarly, we found in this sample that owner-surrendered cats were adopted on average nine days sooner than stray cats. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that entry type was a significant predictor of days to adopt, and that latency to approach a human significantly improved the prediction model. Further, how quickly stray cats, but not owner-surrendered cats, approached a human experimenter correlated significantly with a shortened adoption time in the actual adoption scenario. Finally, in study 3, we used an on-line survey to present 12 dual-image pictures of cats and manipulated whether the information about the cat listed each as owner-surrendered or stray cat. We asked 120 college students to rate their likelihood of adopting each pictured cat. When participants were asked about reasons they would adopt a particular cat, 81% reported friendly behavior toward them; yet when viewing the mirror images in the survey (no behavioral information available), cats received higher adoptability ratings when presented as owner-surrendered compared with the flipped image of that cat presented as a stray. Taken together, these studies suggest that adopters' perception of stray cats, as well as cats' interactions with humans, influence the amount of time a cat remains in the shelter prior to adoption.     

Inhibition training in wolves and dogs

A theoretical model previously proposed by the first author hypothesizes that dogs (C. familiaris) should perform better than wolves (C. lupus) on training tasks in which (1) cues are arbitrarily selected by the experimenter, (2) reinforcement is administered by the experimenter, and (3) the to-be-learned behavior has no perceptible, functional connection with the reinforcement. To test this hypothesis, four Eastern wolf pups (C. l. lycaon) and four Alaskan Malamute pups (C. familiaris) were administered a passive inhibition task at seven weeks of age and an active inhibition test (leash training) at 11 weeks of age. Significant differences in the predicted direction were obtained for all task variables.     

Evaluation of a Community’s Risk for Canine Parvovirus and Distemper Using Antibody Testing and GIS Mapping of Animal Shelter Intakes

This cross-sectional study aimed to identify where dogs with negative antibody tests to canine parvovirus (CPV) and canine distemper virus (CDV) originated when entering a community shelter, using a commercially available ELISA antibody test and Geographic Information Systems mapping. Of 2745 canines entering during a three-month period, 1056 test results were obtained. Dogs or puppies weighing over 2 lb were eligible if they could be humanely, nonchemically restrained for phlebotomy. Age and minor health issues weren't exclusions. Dogs were excluded if trained personnel were concerned health would be compromised by phlebotomy. Blood samples were collected within 24 hours of entry. Four hundred and twenty-seven (40%) dogs had positive antibody test results for both viruses, 422 (40%) were positive for CPV, 37 (4%) were positive for CDV, and 170 (16%) were negative for both. Mapping revealed geographic patterns for dogs with negative antibody tests. This shelter admitted dogs with negative CPV and/or CDV antibody tests from defined community areas. Targeting vaccination efforts in communities to areas where dogs with negative antibody tests originate could be an effective wellness strategy.     

Renal sympathetic nerve activity and arterial pressure responses to changes in postural position of conscious dogs

Experiments were conducted in conscious dogs to determine the relationships between postural position, arterial pressure, and renal sympathetic nerve activity. Observations of the changes in arterial pressure and renal nerve activity were made when animals spontaneously changed postural position from lying to sitting, sitting to standing, standing to sitting, and sitting to lying. Rising to sit from lying down increased arterial pressure from 109 +/- 5 to 125 +/- 3 mm Hg and increased renal nerve activity by 96 +/- 58 microV/sec (61% of control). Movement from the sitting to standing position decreased renal nerve activity by 90 +/- 39 microV/sec (48% of control) without changing mean arterial pressure. Sitting down from standing also did not change arterial pressure, whereas renal nerve activity increased by 56 +/- 17 microV/sec (33% of control). Returning to the lying position (from sitting) decreased arterial pressure, and this hypotension was associated with significant reductions in renal nerve activity. These results indicate that nonuniform changes in sympathetic outflow from the central nervous system must occur to various vascular beds during changes in postural position of conscious dogs. Thus, renal sympathetic outflow may or may not reflect changes in nerve traffic which contribute to alterations in arterial pressure.     

Behavioral evaluation and demographic information in the assessment of aggressiveness in shelter dogs

Behavioral evaluations of 2017 shelter dogs were used for identifying dogs with aggressive tendencies and for predicting post-adoption behavior problems. Associations between failure of the behavioral evaluation and demographic factors (age, breed, and sex) and the dog's behavioral history, evaluated by logistic regression, were highly significant (P < 0.0005), except for “old” dogs (age > 72 months). Dogs that failed the behavior evaluation were not placed for adoption; therefore it was not possible to study prospectively the capability of behavioral evaluation to predict future aggressiveness in these dogs. Instead we developed tests for classifying dogs as aggressive or not aggressive based on their demographic factors and behavior evaluation outcomes. The results were compared retrospectively to the dogs’ known behavioral histories, which were obtained at intake to the shelter. This allowed estimation of the sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of the classification tests. The most significant postdictor (i.e., “retrospective predictor”) of aggressiveness was failure of the behavioral evaluation (odds ratio 11.83, P < 0.0005). Among dogs that passed the behavioral evaluation, classification as “unsocial” by the behavioral evaluation was associated with nonaggressive behavior problems reported at 6-month follow-up (P = 0.005), and classification as “borderline” was associated with return to the shelter for aggressive behavior (P = 0.028). Behavioral evaluations reduced the rate of returns of adopted dogs from 19% in the year prior to their institution to 14% (P = 0.001) during the 2-year study period. Returns for aggression were reduced from 5% to 3.5% (P = 0.05), with many fewer incidents of serious aggression. The majority of dogs (86%) that failed the behavioral evaluation failed multiple component tests, indicating general aggressive tendencies in these dogs. Together with demographic information and behavioral history, behavioral evaluations can help to improve decisions regarding the disposition of shelter dogs.     

Provision of Service Dogs for People With Mobility Disabilities

ABSTRACT

Interactions among domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus), and people were studied at Dry Creek, Boulder, Colorado. Our objective was to develop a basic understanding of the nature of dog—prairie dog interactions in this recreational area, because this is an issue that has high visibility and over which there is conflict in Boulder: There are those who want dogs to run free regardless of their impact on the behavior and lives of prairie dogs and those who want to protect prairie dogs and have dogs restrained or go elsewhere. We found that dogs clearly influenced the behavior of prairie dogs, however, no prairie dogs were known to be caught or killed by any dog during the course of study. Prairie dogs disturbed by dogs were more alert (vigilant) and wary of dogs and played less than undisturbed individuals. However, disturbed prairie dogs were less wary of the presence of humans than undisturbed animals. People tried to stop dogs from harassing prairie dogs only 25% of the time. A survey showed that 58% of people polled at Dry Creek (all dog owners) did not believe that prairie dogs should be protected even if dogs are a problem. Increased human responsibility would likely go a long way towards reducing existing conflict among people wanting to protect prairie dogs and those who do not. Boulder city officials have not yet incorporated our data into their immediate management plans. However, by identifying the nature of dog—prairie dog encounters and specific areas of conflict among people who side either with dogs or prairie dogs, in the future, proactive strategies grounded by empirical data can be developed and implemented so that the interests of all parties can be accommodated.     

Exploring Human Interaction and Diet Effects on the Behavior of Dogs in a Public Animal Shelter

This study examined the effects of 2 manipulations-a brief, regular period of human contact and diet-on the behavior of dogs confined in a public animal shelter. A behavioral battery designed to assess reactions to novel situations, and a test of responsiveness to an unfamiliar human were administered both prior to (pretest) and immediately following (posttest) the 8-week intervention period. Overall, the regular periods of increased human contact together with a diet that contained augmented levels of digestible protein, fat, calories, and animal-derived ingredients reduced signs of behavioral reactivity from pretest to posttest. In some cases, the comparison diet appeared more effective, but only for dogs receiving minimal human interaction. The results indicate that a combination of human interaction and high quality diet may positively affect the behavior of dogs in animal shelters.     

Exploring human interaction and diet effects on the behavior of dogs in a public animal shelter

This study examined the effects of 2 manipulations-a brief, regular period of human contact and diet-on the behavior of dogs confined in a public animal shelter. A behavioral battery designed to assess reactions to novel situations, and a test of responsiveness to an unfamiliar human were administered both prior to (pretest) and immediately following (posttest) the 8-week intervention period. Overall, the regular periods of increased human contact together with a diet that contained augmented levels of digestible protein, fat, calories, and animal-derived ingredients reduced signs of behavioral reactivity from pretest to posttest. In some cases, the comparison diet appeared more effective, but only for dogs receiving minimal human interaction. The results indicate that a combination of human interaction and high quality diet may positively affect the behavior of dogs in animal shelters.     

The effect of ostensive cues on dogs’ performance in a manipulative social learning task

In contrast to animal social learning (e.g. dogs learning from observing another dog), humans typically teach by attracting the attention of the learner. Also during the training of dogs, humans tend to attract their attention in a similar way. Here, we investigated dogs’ ability to learn both from a dog and a human demonstrator in a manipulative task, where the models demonstrated which part of a box to manipulate in order to get a food reward. We varied the communicative context both during the dog and during the human demonstration comparably: a second experimenter directed the attention of the subjects to the model (dog/human ostensive demonstration) or remained silent (dog/human non-ostensive demonstration). Moreover, we investigated whether the training level of the dogs (well-trained vs. untrained) affected how the dogs performed in the manipulative tasks after the different demonstrations.We found that better trained dogs showed significantly better problem solving abilities. They paid more attention to the human demonstration than to the dog model, whereas such a difference in attentiveness of the less trained dogs was not found. Despite slight differences in paying attention to the different demonstrators, the presence of human or the dog demonstrators exerted equally effectiveness on the test performance of the dogs. However, the effectiveness of the demonstrations was significantly reduced if ostensive cues were given during the demonstrations by a second experimenter. Analysis of attentiveness and activity of the observer dogs during the demonstrations indicates that the reason for this negative effect was a combination of distracted attention paid to the demonstration and a higher level of excitement in the ostensive than in the non-ostensive demonstrations.This study suggests that third party communication during demonstration attracts dogs’ attention to the communicator instead of paying close attention to the model. We suggest that precise timing and synchronization of attention-calling and demonstration is necessary to avoid this distracting effect.     

Prevalence of behaviour problems reported by owners of dogs purchased from an animal rescue shelter

This study examined the prevalence of behaviour problems exhibited by dogs within 4 weeks of acquisition from a rescue shelter in Northern Ireland. One thousand five hundred and forty-seven people who had purchased a dog from a rescue shelter in Northern Ireland were sent a postal questionnaire designed to collect information on the behaviours exhibited by their dog within the first month of acquisition. Five hundred and fifty-six people responded to the survey, representing a response rate of 37%. The majority of respondents (68.3%) reported that their dog exhibited a behaviour problem, the most common being fearfulness. Most of those respondents (89.7%) who returned their dog to the shelter did so because the animal exhibited behaviour that they considered undesirable. Male dogs showed more unacceptable behaviours than females, specifically inter-male aggression, sexual problems and straying tendencies. More stray dogs displayed undesirable behaviour than unwanteds, specifically straying tendencies. Puppies were less likely to exhibit unacceptable behaviours than juveniles or adults, particularly fearfulness, sexual problems and straying tendencies. More juvenile dogs showed excessive activity and excessive barking than puppies or adults. More adult dogs displayed aggression towards other dogs than juveniles or puppies. Findings indicate that dogs purchased from rescue shelters do exhibit behaviour problems that may lead to their return. The number of dogs admitted or returned to rescue shelters with behaviour problems may be reduced by raising public awareness regarding the value of behaviour therapy and introducing behaviour therapy schemes to rescue shelters.     

Spontaneous trait transference from dogs to owners

Abstract

This work found that participants attributed traits associated with breeds of dogs to their owners (indicating that a person may be perceived as more nervous if believed to own a Chihuahua, more heroic if believed to own a Collie, more aggressive if believed to own a Doberman, etc.). The findings further suggest that some people have folk theories that owners select breeds of dogs that resemble them dispositionally. When participants were unable to use this folk theory (when it was clear that the target people were not the dogs' owners and just randomly happened to share the same environment) those participants who owned dogs themselves still transferred traits; however those who did not own dogs themselves did not do so. These findings provide evidence of a novel associative effect in person impression and are discussed in terms of simple associative versus inferential processes.     

A Comparison of Measures of Boldness and Their Relationships to Survival in Young Fish

Boldness is the propensity of an animal to engage in risky behavior. Many variations of novel-object or novel-environment tests have been used to quantify the boldness of animals, although the relationship between test outcomes has rarely been investigated. Furthermore, the relationship of outcomes to any ecological aspect of fitness is generally assumed, rather than measured directly. Our study is the first to compare how the outcomes of the same test of boldness differ among observers and how different tests of boldness relate to the survival of individuals in the field. Newly-metamorphosed lemon damselfish, Pomacentrus moluccensis, were placed onto replicate patches of natural habitat. Individual behavior was quantified using four tests (composed of a total of 12 different measures of behavior): latency to enter a novel environment, activity in a novel environment, and reactions to threatening and benign novel objects. After behavior was quantified, survival was monitored for two days during which time fish were exposed to natural predators. Variation among observers was low for most of the 12 measures, except distance moved and the threat test (reaction to probe thrust), which displayed unacceptable amounts of inter-observer variation. Overall, the results of the behavioral tests suggested that novel environment and novel object tests quantified similar behaviors, yet these behavioral measures were not interchangeable. Multiple measures of behavior within the context of novel environment or object tests were the most robust way to assess boldness and these measures have a complex relationship with survivorship of young fish in the field. Body size and distance ventured from shelter were the only variables that had a direct and positive relationship with survival.