Apical Dominance in the Tomato: Some Further Observations on Isogenic Lines Showing Varying Degrees of Side-shoot Development

A study has been made of the distribution of substances resemblingindol-3-ylacetic acid (IAA), abscisic acid (ABA) and cytokinin-likesubstances in the stem tissue of Craigella tomato plants ascompared with that found in two isogenic lines of this variety,Craigella Blind (blbl) and Craigella Lateral Suppressor (lsls),in both of which side shoot growth is suppressed to varyingdegrees. There was no evidence to suggest that the distributionof these hormones in the stem had any association with the differentpatterns of side shoot development of the three types, thoughsome of the lateral suppressor plants which exhibited only partialbud inhibition did show a relation between high auxin and abscisicacid levels and lack of side shoot development from the centralnodes of the shoot. Decapitation led to a stimulation of bud outgrowth from allnodes of the Craigella plants but the lateral suppressor plantsremained inhibited. The blind plants were found to initiatebud primordia at the cotyledonary nodes only when the severedapex was replaced by exogenous IAA. The results are discussed in relation to our knowledge of themechanisms controlling apical dominance in the tomato. Lycopersicon esculentumL, tomato, apical dominance, growth regulation, indol-3-ylacetic acid, abscisic acid, cytokinins     

Endogenous levels of abscisic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, zeatin and zeatin-riboside during the course of adventitious root formation in cuttings of Craigella and Craigella lateral suppressor tomatoes

Indole acetic acid (IAA). abscisic acid (ABA), and zeatin plus zeatin riboside (Z + ZR) were determined daily in cuttings of Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Craigella (C) and the Craigella Lateral Suppressor (CLS) mutant during the first 5 days of the root-forming process. A solid-phase enzyme immunoassay using specific anti-hormone antibodies was used following a one-step HPLC purification procedure. The hormone measurements were made in cuttings divided into 4 parts. The main variations occurred in the terminal bud and in the basal part of the hypocotyl of the two tomato varieties, i.e. significant IAA and ABA increases during the first 2 days followed by a more or less fast return to the initial values at day 4 or 5. This is probably due to the ablation of the root system. Z + ZR levels dramatically decreased in the basal part of the Craigella hypocotyl 1 day after cutting. Contrary to CLS, C hypocotyls recovered the initial high levels when roots regenerated (day 5). This is probably linked to the greater ability of roots to produce cytokinins in C plants than in CLS ones. The first step of root formation (reactivation of the pericyclic cells and formation of root primordia) corresponded to a high IAA/Z + ZR ratio in the root-forming tissue, whereas the second step (elongation of young roots) was characterized by a low ratio with low levels of hormones.     

Levels of IAA, Cytokinins, ABA and Ethylene in Rice Plants as Affected by a Gibberellin Biosynthesis Inhibitor, Uniconazole-P.

Effects of uniconazole-P, a triazole-type growth retardant,on endogenous levels of IAA, cytokinins, ABA and ethylene inrice seedlings were investigated. Endogenous levels of IAA andABA were similar between control and uniconazole-P-treated riceshoots. Evolution of ethylene was promoted slightly, being 1.8times greater under 0.3 ppm uniconazole-P treatment than thatof control. The most obvious effect was the increase of trans-Zand trans-RZ in shoots. Shoots treated with uniconazole-P (10mg/m² nursery box) contained 3.4 times and 3 times more trans-Zand trans-RZ than control, respectively. No significant differencesof cytokinin levels were recognized in roots except for cis-RZ.The increase of ethylene and active forms of cytokinins, andthe decrease of gibberellin in the shoots may be the basis forphysiological phenomena caused by uniconazole-P, namely thepromotion of flowering in woody plants and the enhancement offemaleness in cucumber. (Received September 9, 1987; Accepted October 20, 1987)     

Effects of Salinity on Some Citrus Scion-Rootstock Combinations

Chloride and sodium concentrations, water relations and gasexchange parameters were measured on leaves of Clementine (CitrusClementine Hort. ex. Tan) and Navel orange [C. sinensis (L.)Osb] scions grafted on Cleopatra mandarin (C. reticulata Blanco)and Troyer citrange (C. sinensis x Poncirus trifoliata) rootstocksgrown at increasing levels of NaCl in the external medium. Otherparameters affected by salinity such as growth and defoliationwere also recorded. Scions on Cleopatra mandarin accumulated less Cl^- in their leavesthan did scions on Troyer citrange. Also, leaf Cl^- levels inClementine scions were lower than in Navel orange when bothwere grafted on the same rootstock. However, sodium concentrationwas lower in scions on Troyer citrange than in Cleopatra mandarin. Leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, photosynthesis andgrowth were reduced more in grafted plants of salt-treated Navelorange than those of salt-treated Clementine. However, choiceof rootstock had little effect on salt-induced changes in theseparameters. For each scion, reduction in leaf stomatal conductancewas closely correlated with decrease in leaf water potential.Also, a significant correlation between photosynthesis and stomatalconductance was found. The results indicate that reductions in gas exchange parametersand growth at increasing salinity levels depended more on thescion type than on Cl^- or Na⁺ concentration in leaves. Otherwise,leaf injury and defoliation were closely correlated with leafCl^- concentration.Copyright 1995, 1999 Academic Press Citrus, photosynthesis, salinity, water relations     

Kinetin Transport to Axillary Buds of Dwarf Pea (Pisum sativum L.)

Decapitation resulted in the transport of significant amountsof ¹⁴C to the axillary buds from either point of application,but pretreatment of the cut internode surface of decapitatedplants with IAA (alone or in combination with unlabelled kinetin)inhibited the transport of label to the axillary buds and resultedin its accumulation in the IAA-treated region of the stem. Inintact plants to which labelled kinetin was applied to the apicalbud there was little movement of ¹⁴C beyond the internode subtendingthis bud; when labelled kinetin was applied to the roots ofintact plants, ¹⁴C accumulated in the stem and apical bud butwas not transported to the axillary buds. A considerable proportionof the applied radioactivity became incorporated into ethanol-insoluble/NaOH-solublecompounds in the apical bud of intact plants, in internodestreated with IAA, and in axillary buds released from dominanceby removal of the apical bud. The results are discussed in relation to the possible role ofhormone-directed transport of cytokinins m the regulation ofaxillary bud growth.     

Transport of shoot- and cotyledon-applied indole-3-acetic acid to Vicia faba root

To clarify the participation of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) originatingfrom the shoot in root growth regulation and the mechanism ofIAA translocation from shoot to root, the movement of ¹⁴C-IAAwhich was applied to the epicotyl or the cotyledon of Viciafaba seedlings was investigated. The radioactivity of IAA appliedto the cotyledon moved faster to the root tip than that appliedto the epicotyl. On the basis of the effect of 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid on IAAmovement, a comparison with ¹⁴C-glucose movement and autoradiographicexamination, the nature of IAA movement was concluded to bepolar transport from the epicotyl to the basal part of the roots,while IAA movement from the epicotyl to the cotyledon, fromthe basal part of roots to the apical part, and from the cotyledonto the epicotyl and to the root took place in the phloem. Theradioactivity from ¹⁴C-IAA applied to the cotyledon accumulatedin lateral root primordia and vascular bundles. These factssuggest that IAA produced in cotyledons may participate in theregulation of Vicia root development. (Received December 21, 1979; )     

Rootstock effects on xylem conduit dimensions and vulnerability to cavitation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Olea europaea</Emphasis> L.

Two clones of Olea europaea L. were studied for their potential impact on hydraulic architecture and vulnerability to xylem cavitation, when used as rootstocks. The clones used were “Leccino Minerva” (LM), showing vigorous growth and “Leccino Dwarf” (LD) with strongly reduced growth. Self-rooted LM and LD plants as well as their grafting combinations were compared, namely, LM/LD (Leccino Minerva grafted onto Leccino Dwarf rootstock) and LD/LM (Leccino Dwarf grafted onto Leccino Minerva rootstocks). Plants with LD roots (LD and LM/LD) showed significantly reduced leaf surface area compared with plants with LM roots. Xylem conduits of LD shoots were 25% more numerous than in LM shoots. When grafted onto LM rootstocks, however, LD shoots produced consistently wider and longer vessels than measured in LD self-rooted plants. This caused LD/LM plants to increase stem vulnerability to cavitation with threshold pressures for cavitation (P _c) of less than 0.5 MPa compared with LD self-rooted plants that had P _c of over 2.0 MPa. By contrast, although LD rootstocks caused some reduction of vessel diameter and length of LM scions, their influence on LM hydraulic architecture was too small to reduce vulnerability to cavitation of LM scions with respect to that measured for LM self-rooted plants. Our conclusion is that although dwarfing rootstocks effectively reduce grafted plant size, they do not necessarily confer higher resistance to xylem cavitation to scions which would improve plant resistance to drought.     

The Effects of Cytokinins and ABA on Stomatal Behaviour of Maize and Commelina

Epidermal strips and leaf fragments of Commelina and leaf fragmentsof maize were incubated on solutions containing naturally-occurringor synthetic cytokinins and/or ABA. The effects of these treatmentson stomatal behaviour were assessed. Cytokinins alone did notpromote stomatal opening in either species but concentrationsof both zeatin and kinetin from 10^–3 to 10^–1 molm^–3 caused some reversal of ABA-stimulated closure ofmaize stomata. The reversal of the ABA effect increased withincreasing cytokinin concentration. Cytokinins had no effecton ABA-stimulated closure of Commelina stomata. When appliedalone, at high concentration (10^–1 mol m^–3), toCommelina epidermis or leaf pieces both zeatin and kinetin restrictedstomatal opening. Key words: ABA, Cytokinins, Stomata, Maize, Commelina     

Abscisic Acid and Apical Dominance in Phaseolus coccineus L. The Role of Tissue Age

Abscisic acid (ABA) applied to the decapitated second internodeof runner bean plants enhanced outgrowth of lateral buds onlywhen internode stumps were no longer elongating. Applied toelongating internodes of slightly younger plants, ABA causesinhibition of bud outgrowth. Together with 10^–4 M indol-3-ylacetic acid (IAA), ABA stimulated internode elongation and interactedadditively in the inhibition of bud outgrowth. A mixture of10^–5 M ABA and 10^–6 M gibberellic acid (GA₃ ) causedsimilar effects on internode growth as IAA + ABA, but was mutuallyantagonistic in effect on growth of the lateral buds. Abscisic acid, apical dominance, gibberellic acid, indol-3yl acetic acid, Phaseolus coccineus, bean     

Hormonal Regulation of Gametangial Formation in the Moss Bryum argenteum Hedw

Phytohormones such as auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, andabscisic acid differentially affect gametangial induction inmale and female clones of Bryum argenteum. Both IAA and GA³increased the percentage of fertile gametophores in the maleclone, and inhibited the response in the female clone. GA₃ wasmore effective than IAA in eliciting the response in the maleclone. Cytokinins, on the other hand, increased the productionof fertile gametophores in the female clone, and inhibited itslightly in the male clone. The two cytokinins tested (kinetinand DMAAP) were almost equally effective for the female clone. An Interaction of IAA and kinetin nullified their individualinhibitory effects on the female and male clones, respectively.Cyclic AMP prevented the inhibitory effect of kinetin in themale clone; whereas, in the female clone, it stimulated theresponse elicited by kinetin. Abscisic acid (ABA) acted as ageneral inhibitor of vegetative growth and gametangial inductionin this moss. However, the inhibition of gametangial inductionwas greater in the female clone which is also more sensitiveto ABA than the male clone.     

Phyllody Malformation in Flowers of Rosaxhybrida cv. Motrea: Effects of Rootstocks, Flower Position, Growth Regulators and Season

Phyllody, a common malformation of Rosaxhybrida cv. Motrea,is characterized by the formation of vegetative structures inplace of stamens and carpels. The incidence of phyllody in thiscultivar is dependent on the type of the root system. The highestproportion of malformed flowers was found in ungrafted plants,this decreased in plants grafted on R. indica major and waslowest on R. canina inermis. Flowers formed on shoots, whichwere located closer to the roots, were more prone to phyllodythan those grown on the upper part of the plants. The incidenceof phyllody was lower in winter than in summer, while shadingof the plants reduced the proportion of malformed flowers regardlessof their root system and the season. Application of gibberellicacid (GA₃) or benzylaminopurine (BAP) greatly promoted the incidenceof phyllody, while paclobutrazol (PBZ) reduced it. The activityof endogenous cytokinins in the xylem exudates from ungraftedplants was higher than in exudates from those grafted on R.indica major, and the lowest activity was found in exudatesfrom plants grafted on R. canina inermis. The involvement ofplant hormones in the development of floral organs in rose flowersis discussed. Key words: Cytokinins, flower malformation, gibberellic acid, homeosis, phyllody, roses     

Effects of Indol-3yl acetic Acid on Floral Induction and Apical Differentiation in Chenopodium rubrum L.

Indol-3yl acetic acid (10^–4M) was applied to the plumulesof Chenopodium rubrum. Effects on the anatomical structure andthe growth pattern in the apical meristem, as well as DNA synthesisand nucleolus size were investigated. When auxin is applied before or during photoperiodic inductionit inhibits DNA synthesis and meristematic activity. The axillarymeristem (i.e. a group of cells in the axils of the leaf primordia)is most affected. A similar inhibition of the axillary meristemwas also observed in non-induced control plants grown in continuouslight. Auxin applied simultaneously with photoperiodic inductioncounteracts the reduction of apical dominance in the apex andthus inhibits the onset of floral differentiation. Auxin appliedfollowing induction inhibits the previously-formed buds andmakes possible a more complete development of the apical flower. The dual effect of IAA on flowering, inhibitory and stimulatory,manifests itself as a growth response at different stages ofthe changing shoot apex.     

Auxin-Cytokinin Interactions in Wild-Type and Transgenic Tobacco

Cytokinins and auxins are important regulators of plant growthand development, but there is incomplete and conflicting evidencethat auxins affect cytokinin metabolism and vice versa. We haveinvestigated these interactions in Nicotiana tabacum L. by separatein planta manipulation of levels of the hormones followed byanalysis of the induced changes in the metabolism of the otherhormone. Cytokinin-overproducing plants (expressing the Agrobacte-riumtumefaciens ipt gene) had lower than wild-type levels of freeIAA, and reduced rates of IAA synthesis and turnover, but therewere no differences in the profiles of metabolites they producedfrom fed IAA. Similarly, auxin-overproducing plants (expressingthe A.tumefaciens iaaM and iaaH genes), had lower levels ofthe major cytokinins than wild-type plants and lower cytokininoxidase activity, but there were no differences in the profilesof metabolites they produced from fed cytokinins. The data demonstratethat cytokinin or auxin overproduction decreases the contentof the other hormone, apparently by decreasing its rate of synthesisand/or transport, rather than by increasing rates of turnoveror conjugation. Implications for the importance of cytokinin: auxin ratios in plant development are considered. (Received September 24, 1996; Accepted December 4, 1996)     

The Mechanism of Action of Vernalization in Lathyrus odoratus L.

In the sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.) genes Dn^l andDr^h controlthe production of a graft-transmissible substance which delaysflowering and promotes outgrowth of basal laterals. Seed vernalizationpromotes flowering and reduces lateral outgrowth in intact plantsand grafted scions of genotype DnⁱDn^l, suggesting that vernalizationreduces output of the Dnⁱ system, possibly by disrupting therelationship between chronological and plastochronic age. Whenlateral outgrowth and floral abortion are used as indicatorsof inhibitor levels, it can be shown that vernalized Dnⁱ plantspossess more inhibitor but initiate flower buds at a lower nodethan unvernalized dn plants. This supports the suggestion thatin regard to floral initiation vernalization also alters thesensitivity of the shoot apex to the flowering hormone(s). InLathyrus odoratus an hormonally based vernalization responseof considerable magnitude can be shown for day-neutral (dndn)lines, supporting the suggestion that vernalization also influencesthe level of a flower promotor. Lathyrus odoratus L., sweet pea, vernalization, flowering, branching, genotype, grafting     

Some Physiological Characteristics of Two Tomato Cultivars, One Tolerant and One Susceptible to Tobacco Mosaic Virus

A comparison was made of physiological activity in the tomatocv. Potentate, susceptible to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) withthat in cv. Virocross which is tolerant. Growth analysis overa 5-week period showed Potentate to have a higher relative growthrate and a higher net assimilation rate than Virocross. In reciprocalgrafts scion growth, including dry weight, was greater on Potentaterootstocks than on Virocross. Growth responses were studiedin these grafts following foliar sprays of N-6 benzyladenine(BA) and gibberellic acid (GA). The response of the scion toGA was similar in both cultivars and there was no interactionbetween GA and rootstock for scion growth. An interaction betweenstock and BA was found for leaf growth. Bleeding sap from Virocross contained more gibberellins, morecytokinins, and a lower concentration of amino compounds, especiallynon-protein acids, than Potentate. There were more gibberellinsin the roots of Potentate but no difference between shoots ofthe two cultivars. In reciprocal grafts TMV multiplied more rapidly in Virocrossscions on Potentate rootstock than on their own, but Virocrossstocks did not affect virus multiplication in Potentate scions.Spraying Potentate plants with BA reduced the rate of virusmultiplication. It is suggested that virus multiplication in the shoot may becontrolled by two distinct root factors, viz, the supply ofnative cytokinins and the amount and nature of the nitrogenouscompounds which directly influence the rate of shoot growth.     

Conferring high‐temperature tolerance to nontransgenic tomato scions using graft transmission of RNA silencing of the fatty acid desaturase gene

We investigated graft transmission of high‐temperature tolerance in tomato scions to nontransgenic scions from transgenic rootstocks, where the fatty acid desaturase gene (LeFAD7) was RNA‐silenced. Tomato was transformed with a plasmid carrying an inverted repeat of LeFAD7 by Agrobacterium. Several transgenic lines showed the lower amounts of LeFAD7 RNA and unsaturated fatty acids, while nontransgenic control did not, and siRNA was detected in the transgenic lines, but not in control. These lines grew under conditions of high temperature, while nontransgenic control did not. Further, the nontransgenic plants were grafted onto the silenced transgenic plants. The scions showed less of the target gene RNA, and siRNA was detected. Under high‐temperature conditions, these grafted plants grew, while control grafted plants did not. Thus, it was shown that high‐temperature tolerance was conferred in the nontransgenic scions after grafting onto the silenced rootstocks.     

Cytokinins in Root Nodules of Phaseolus mungo

Four cytokinins have been separated from extracts of root nodulesof Phaseolus mungo by thin-layer chromatography. Their activitywas determined on the basis of their ability to induce betacyaninsynthesis in cotyledons of Amaranthus caudatus. Zeatin and itsriboside showed greater activity than N⁶ (²-(isopentenyl)) aminopurine and its riboside in the bioassay. Phaseolus mungo, mung bean, cytokinins, isopentenyl, amino-purine, zeatin, betacyanin synthesis, Amaranthus caudatus     

Localization of Stem Elongation Control in Cucumis sativus L

Reciprocal grafts, and applications of gibberellin (GA) and indoleacetic acid (IAA) were used to localize the site of control for stem elongation in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Dwarf and tall plants were reciprocally grafted to determine influence of stems and roots on stem elongation. At 21 days there were no significant differences in length between stems grafted to their own roots and those grafted to roots of the other type. GA₃, GA₄₊₇, and IAA were applied to seedlings with and without live apical buds. Seedlings with live apical buds responded to level of added GA, but not to added IAA. GA₄₊₇ was more effective than GA₃. Hypocotyls of tall plants responded more to both GA treatments than did those of the dwarves when both types had live apical buds. When either GA₄₊₇ or IAA was applied to seedlings with dead apical buds, elongation of the hypocotyl responded to level of the growth regulator, but there was no difference in response between the dwarf and tall plants.     

Effect of mutations in the PINHEAD gene of Arabidopsis on the formation of shoot apical meristems

The primary shoot apical meristem of angiosperm plants is formed during embryogenesis. Lateral shoot apical meristems arise postembryonically in the axils of leaves. Recessive mutations at the PINHEAD locus of Arabidopsis interfere with the ability of both the primary shoot apical meristem as well as lateral shoot apical meristems to form. However, adventitious shoot apical meristems can form in pinhead mutant seedlings from the axils of the cotyledons and also from cultred root explants. In this report, the phenotype of pinhead mutants is described, and a hypothesis for the role of the wild-type PINHEAD gene product in shoot meristem initiation is presented. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.